a member of the American company of New Test. revisers. He resigned the office of pres. of Haverford College 1886, spent 14 months in revisiting the universities and chief seats of learning in Europe, and has since applied himself to literary pursuits at Providence, R. I. He received the degree LL.D. from Harvard Univ. 1878, and that of LIT.D. from Haverford College 1880.

CHENEY, che'ni, EDNAH Dow: born Boston, Mass., 1824, June 27; daughter of Sargent S. Littlehale, and wife of Seth Wells C., artist. She received a private-school education; became sec. of the women's School of Design, Boston, 1851, of the New England Women's and Children's Hospital 1862, of the colored soldiers' aid committee and the Freedmen's Aid Society's teachers' committee 1863; and has been an officer of the Mass. Woman Suffrage Assoc., a frequent visitor to the Freedmen's schools in the s. states, and a lecturer at the Concord School of Philosophy. She is the author of a number of books of social games and juvenile history and fiction, and Life of Dr. Susan Dimock (1875); Gleanings in the Fields of Art (1881); and Selected Poems from Michelangelo Buonarotti (1885).

CHATARD, shâ'târ, FRANCIS SILAS, D.D.: Rom. Cath. bp.: b. Baltimore, 1834, Dec. 13. He graduated at Mount St. Mary's College, Emmettsburg, 1853, June, and then took a full medical course, but, 1857, decided to prepare for the priesthood in the Rom. Cath. Church. He studied six years at the Urban College, Rome; won the cap of D.D. 1863, Aug.; was appointed vice-rector of the American College, Rome, Nov.; became rector on the consecration of Dr. McCloskey as bp. of Louisville; and presided over the college ten years. His services in the college, and his attentions to the American bishops in attendance at the Vatican council, were so highly esteemed by Pope Pius IX. that he presented him a gold medal of rare beauty and great value. In 1878 Dr. C. returned to the United States on account of impaired health, and during his short visit collected considerable money for the college. On his return to Rome, he was appointed bp. of Vincennes, Ind.; was consecrated 1878, May 12; and, taking charge of his diocese, made Indianapolis his residence. Bp. Č. presided over the second and third (1880) diocesan synods, and took part in the fourth council of Cincinnati and the third plenary council of Baltimore 1884.

CHENEY, che'ni, PEARSON C.: manufacturer: b. Holderness, N. H., 1828, Feb. 25. He received an academic education, and when 17 years old was placed in charge of his father's paper-mill at Manchester. He has since followed that industry, and is the present head (1890) of the P. C. Cheney corporation, which produces an average of seven tons of paper daily. In 1853 he was a member of the state legislature; 1862 quartermaster 13th N. H. vols., and was forced to resign from illness caused by exposure at Fredericksburg; 1864-67 a state railroad

commissioner; 1871 mayor of Manchester; and 1875-78 gov. of the state. On the death of U. S. Senator Austin F. Pike, 1886, Oct., he was appointed to fill the vacancy by Gov. Currier. He took his seat 1886, Dec. 7; was appointed a member of the committees on claims, the Dist. of Columbia, and epidemic diseases; and was succeeded by William E. Chandler, 1887, June 14. He is a republican, has been an extensive traveller abroad, is pres. of numerous financial and industrial corporations, and is the owner of the celebrated Grasmere stock farm, from which notable sales were made 1888, Mar. 28.

CHESTER, chès ́ tér, ALBERT HUNTINGTON, E.M., PH.D.: chemist: b. Saratoga Springs, N. Y., 1843, Nov. 22. He received a collegiate education; graduated at the School of Mines, Columbia College, 1868; was appointed prof. of chemistry, mineralogy, and metallurgy in Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., 1871; and chemist to the N. Y. state board of health 1882. Besides his chemical labors, he has explored the iron deposits of the Vermilion dist., Minn., 1875-80, and published a narrative of the work in the Tenth Annual Report of the Geology of Minnesota. His other published works include A Catalogue of Minerals, with Chemical Composition and Synonyms (New York 1886). He received the degree E.M. 1868 and PH.D. 1878, both from the Columbia College School of Mines.

CHESTER, chěs tér, FREDERICK DIXON WALTHALL: geologist: b. Porte au Platte, San Domingo, 1861, Oct. 8. He received a univ. education in St. Louis, graduated at Cornell Univ. 1882, and was soon afterward appointed prof. of geology in Delaware College, Newark, Del. He has made comprehensive examinations of the bowlder and stratified drifts of the state, and the quaternary gravels of the n.e. and s. dists., and, besides elaborate papers on this work, has published: Lecture Notes on Dynamical Geology (1883); Volcanoes and Earthquakes (1884); A Review of the Geology of Delaware (1884); and The Gabbros and Amphibole Rocks of Delaware (1885).

CHILD, child, FRANCIS JAMES: educator: b. Boston, Mass., 1825, Feb. 1. He graduated at Harvard Univ. 1846, spent three years there as tutor, and one year in study in Europe, and became prof. of rhetoric and oratory at the univ. 1851, and of English literature 1876. He has been an enthusiastic student of Anglo-Saxon and early English literature; had charge of an American edition of the British poets, preparing notes and biographies, and personally editing Spenser; and has made a collection of English and Scotch ballads, the latter being perhaps his most important work, a new ed. of which was published 1886. He has also published: Four Old Plays (1848); Poems of Sorrow and Comfort (1865); and contributed Observations on the Language of Chaucer and Gower to Ellis's Early English Pronunciation, 1st part (London 1869).

OIL ON THE WAVES: means of safety for vessels in storms, the efficacy of which, though known to the ancients, has only of late received practical recognition among modern seamen. The action of the oil consists in preventing the combs of the waves from breaking and sweeping over the vessel's deck. Detailed direotions for the employment of oil in various circumstances of danger at sea are now given in works on practical seamanship, and vessels go to sea provided with the necessary oil and appliances for diffusing it on the water. If a bar is to be crossed in heavy weather, after battening down all hatches, etc., 2 pieces of India-rubber pipe, abt. 20 ft. long and 1-in. diameter, are to be put through the hawse-pipes, one on each side, and their ends allowed to trail in the sea. On the upper end of each piece of tube, a good-sized funnel is to be lashed, and secured to the stanchion in a vertical position, and a man stationed at each with a 3-gal. can of colza-oil. When the vessel enters the outermost sea that breaks on the bar, each man gently pours the oil down the pipe. This will smooth the bar, and the vessel will steer much better. Almost any oil of animal or vegetable origin will do; but petroleum is not of much service, except to mix with and thin other oil, if requisite. When lying to in a gale, head to wind and drifting slowly, if a little oil is used, a ship ought to pull through the heaviest storm. Running in a gale, an oil-bag hung over the weatherside, or oil poured down a pipe well forward, is of great service in preventing the sea from breaking aboard; if the gale, increasing, makes it desirable to round to, the method is, to prepare a sea-anchor, watch for a smooth spell, and then put the helm down, heave overboard a few gallons of oil, and float the sea-anchor. Keep pouring the oil on the sea, down a weather-pipe or scupper, while the ship is coming up to the wind. A wellequipped sailing-ship, even if deeply laden, will lie to under a closely reefed topsail or tarpaulin in the rigging, and weather almost any gale, so long as she is not taken aback. Sailing-vessels under these circumstances now often use an oil-bag paid out to windward, to smooth the sea still more: this is the ideal position of a laden vessel at sea in a dangerous storm. While towing a disabled

ship over a bar, or where the sea is very wild, a couple of oil-bags over the stern will ease the sea on the tow. With a good steamer, to take a shipwrecked crew off a wreck, the best way is to run to windward of the wreck, lower the lee boat, put the steamer head to sea and dead to windward, and let the boat drop down toward the wreck by constantly pouring out oil, the sea will be, in great degree, stilled between the steamer and the wreck. HASTINGS, hās' tingz, EUROTAS PARMELEE, D.D.: 1821, Apr. 17-1890, July 31; b. Clinton, N. Y.: missionary. He graduated at Hamilton Coll. 1842, and Union Theol. Seminary 1846; was ordained minister 1846, and the same year went, as missionary of the Amer. Board, to Cey

518 FINLAND-BALLOONS IN NAVAL SERVICE. lon, where he did duty at Batticotta and Chavagacherry and Manepy till 1872, when he was appointed director of the Jaffna Coll., at Batticotta. He resigned that post 1889, on account of increasing physical infirmities, but resumed the care of the Manepy station, and there labored till his death.

FIN LAND, EDUCATION IN: see FINNISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.-A reorganization of the schools of Finland has been decreed at St. Petersburg, the chief new feature being the enforced use of the Russ language, instead of the Finnic, as the vehicle of instruction. As was the case when a similar measure was enforced in the Baltic provinces (where the population is mostly German), the teachers in the Finnish schools have 3 years allowed them, in which they must acquire a mastery of the language of Russia sufficient to use it in their teaching; else they lose their situations. Even in the Univ. of Helsingfors, the centre of Finnic learning, the majority of the students are entirely unacquainted with the Russ language.

CHRISTIAN ALLIANCE: association in western states for promoting fellowship and co-operation among members of various denominations, or those outside of organized sects, and often classed as 'liberal Christians,' who prize a spiritual and practical more than a dogmatic form of Christianity. Its chief promoters are the Rev. Drs. Thomas and Swing, of Chicago. The object of the C. A. is, while not disturbing in any way either the independence or the existing denominational relations of affiliating ministers or churches, (1), to promote the unity of Christendom in the spirit of love to God and love to man, and by earnest efforts to do good in the world; and, as far as may be, to unite men in the work of religion, education, and philanthropy; (2), to aid in establishing churches based on undogmatic Christianity, or on the right of private judgment in interpretation of the Scriptures, and the right of private conscience in action in religion, by extending material assistance and sympathy to those who form such churches, for the purpose of moral and religious culture. A convention of the C. A. was held at Chicago 1890, Nov. 13-16.

BALLOONS' IN NAVAL SERVICE: see BALLOON.Every corps d'armée of the French army is provided with a captive balloon, to serve as an aerial observatory and signal-station. Of more recent introduction is a balloon outfit for the fleet. The Mediterranean squadron is supplied with a balloon that can be raised and lowered from a man-of-war. This balloon was constructed at the military balloon-works of Chalais-Meudon, under the direction of Commander Renard, well known as an aeronaut. It is small, having a volume of 320 cubic metres (11,300 cubic ft.), but can support a single observer at the extremity of its silken cable, a height of 400 metres. lt is inflated with pure hydrogen, prepared in advance, and kept for use in compression tubes.

BIRDS, FLIGHT OF: see BIRDS: FLYING.- Much light is thrown on the problem of the flight of birds by recent researches of Prof. Marey, of the College de France. He finds that, when the bird is not yet in motion, the air which is struck by its wings presents, in the first instance, a resistance due to inertia, then enters into motion, and flies below the wing without furnishing it any support. When the bird is at full speed, on the contrary, its wing is supported each moment on new columns of air, each one of which offers to it the initial resistance due to its inertia. The sum of these resistances presents to the wing a much firmer basis. One might compare a flying bird to a pedestrian who makes great efforts to walk on shifting sands, and who, in proportion as he advances, is reaching a soil by degrees firmer, so that he moves more swiftly and with less fatigue. The increase of the resistance of the air diminishes the expenditure of labor; the strokes of the bird's wing become, in fact, less frequent and less extended. In calm air, a sea-gull which has reached its swiftest expends scarcely one-fifth of the labor which it had to put forth at the beginning of its flight. The bird that flies against the wind finds itself in still more favorable conditions; for the masses of air, continually renewed, bring under its wings their resistance of inertia. The start, therefore, is the most labored phase of flight. It has long been observed that birds employ various artifices to acquire speed, prior to flapping the wings: some run on the ground before darting into the air, or dart rapidly in the direction that they wish to take in flying; others let themselves fall from a height with extended wings, and glide in the air with accelerated speed, before flapping their wings; all turn the bill to the wind at the moment of starting.

LACTITE, lak tit [L. lac, lactis, milk; suffix ite]: substance resembling celluloid, and, like it, used as a substitute for ivory, bone, etc. L. is produced by reducing caseine (or the solids of milk) to a partly soluble or gelatinous condition, by means of borax or ammonia, or other suitable agent, and then mixing it with a mineral salt dissolved in acid or water, which liquid is subsequently evaporated. In practical application of the invention, 10 kilograms of caseine are put in a vessel, and incorporated, under heat, with 3 kilograms of borax previously dissolved in 6 litres of water. When the appearance of the caseine becomes changed, the water is drawn off; the residue should then be of about the consistency of melted gelatine. While it is in this state, there is added 1 kilogram of a mineral salt held in solution by 3 litres of acid. Almost any of the salts of iron, lead, tin, zinc, copper, or other mineral salts soluble in acid, may be used. The acid employed depends on the salt used, as only such acid will serve as will properly dissolve the salt. The salt employed depends on the exact color required in the finished material. In practice, good re