CROPSEY, krõp'sì, JASPER FRANCIS: painter: b. Rossville, N. Y., 1823, Feb. 18. He first studied architecture, then landscape painting with Edward Maury; made a tour of England, France, Italy, and Switzerland 1847; had a studio in London and exhibited in the Royal Acad. 185563; was established in New York 1863-85; and has since had a studio at Hastings N. Y. He was elected a member of the National Acad. of Design 1851, and exhibited at the International Exhibition at London 1862. His paintings include Jedburgh Abbey; Pontine Marshes (1847); Backwoods of America (1857); Richmond Hill (1862); Greenwood Lake (1870); Lake Nemi in Italy (1879); Old Church at Arreton (1880); Ramapo Valley (1881); Autumn on the Hudson (1882); Wawayanda Valley (1883); Springtime in England (1884); October in Ramapo Valley (1885); Autumn on Lake George; and A Showery Day (1886).

BALLOT: see Knowledge, vol. I.. No. 1, page 10: also Manifold Cyclopedia.-The plan of Ballot reform, enacted by the legislature of N. Y., and approved by Gov. Hill 1890, May 2, provides that all ballots shall be printed and distributed at public expense; that nominations for public office may be made by legally constituted conventions, primary meetings, committees appointed for the purpose by either, or by independent citizens under prescribed rules; that the sec. of state shall certify to the co. clerks the names of all legal candidates in their respective cos.; that the co. clerks shall publish the certified lists of candidates in from two to four newspapers in their cos. six days before every election; that co. clerks shall certify to town clerks and aldermen the list of candidates for town and ward offices at least three days before all elections; that each ballot shall have a perforated line running across the top one inch below the end of ballot, and that on the ballot below this stub shall be printed the names of all offices to be filled and the names of all certified candidates for them; that there shall be as many different kinds of ballots as there are different political parties represented in the certified nominations; that each co. clerk shall use the same size, quality, and tint of paper, kind of type, and quality and tint of plain black ink for all ballots used at one election; that ballots shall be provided at the rate of 200 for every 50 or fraction of 50 voters in a voting district, and that they shall be delivered in sealed packages by co. clerks to town clerks on the Saturday before the election; and that unofficial ballots may be used when the official ones fail of delivery in time, are destroyed between the days of delivery and election, or contain the name or names of candidates deceased since nomination. All ballots to be used in the city of New York shall be prepared by the board of police commissioners of the city, and all to be used in the city of Brooklyn by the board of election of that city. The inspectors of election in each district shall appoint two of their number to serve as ballot clerks during the election, and these clerks shall deliver ballots to all qualified voters. A sufficient number of voting booths or compartments, provided with shelves, peus,

pencils, ink, blotting-paper, and mucilage, shall be provided at each polling place, with a guard-rail so placed that only such persons as are inside said rail can approach within six ft. of the ballot-boxes, and of such voting booths or compartments. Each booth shall be at least three ft. square, and there shall be at least one booth for every 50 voters. No persons other than the election officers and the watchers provided by law and those admitted for the purpose of voting shall be permitted within the guard rail. Each qualified voter, before receiving his ballots from the ballot clerk, must announce his name, which will be noted by the poll clerks, and each name will be numbered with the printed number on the stub of the ballots delivered. On receiving from the clerk one of each kind of ballots furnished for the particular pollingplace, the voter shall take them to the booth or compartment and there in secret prepare his ballots, mainly after the original Australian system. Not more than one person shall be permitted to occupy the same booth at one time, excepting that when a voter is physically unable to prepare his ballot without assistance he will be permitted to take a person of his own selection into the booth with him, and this person shall prepare the ballots as the voter directs. If any voter spoils a ballot he may obtain another full set, and so on successively, not exceeding four full sets in all, on returning the set containing the spoilt ballots. The voter then folds the ballot which he intends voting so that no one can see which one it is, and before voting delivers to an inspector all remaining ballots. No person shall do any electioneering on election day within any polling-place, or in any public street or room, or in a public manner, within 150 ft. of any polling-place.

The N. J. plan of Ballot reform, approved by Gov. Abbett 1890, May 28, differs in several features from those of other states. It provides for the establishment through the state of co. boards of registration of four persons each, two of each political party, to be nominated to the gov. by the chairmen of the two state committees. Poll officers are to be non-partisan, and will be appointed by the co. boards in all elections for state officers and con gressmen, and by the governing body of the city in municipal elections. Precinct officials are required to make a list of all legal voters in their precincts by house-to-house canvass, and the registry list will be compiled from the canvass books. All nominating conventions must file with the sec. of state, or the co. or city clerk (according to the character of the ensuing election) lists of their candidates; but other candidates may be nominated by petition, providing the nominees represent a party that at the election immediately preceding polled 5 per cent. of the entire

vote.

The most conspicuous feature of this plan is the provision for the casting of the ballot. All ballots will be printed at public expense. Each party is to have a ballot with only the names of its own candidates on it; but all

ballots are to be alike as to size, color, paper, and watermark. They may be distributed to proper persons 5 days before the election; but before they can be voted they must be inclosed in official envelopes that can be secured at the polls only and on the day of election. The envelopes are to be voted unsealed, and if one is spoilt by the voter he must return it before he can receive another, and only one additional one will be allowed. Heavy penalties are provided for official malfeasance or misfeasance; and any employer, supt., or overseer of workmen who shall by any means prevent or impede the free exercise of the franchise of any voter shall be liabie to a fine of $2,000, or 5 years' imprisonment, or both.

DEBT, NATIONAL: the N. D. of Great Britain, until recently the heaviest in the world, amounted 1889, Mar. 31, to $3,492,152,855. That of France, on the eve of Napoleon III.'s coup d'état (1851), was $1,105,200.000; just before the Franco-German war, $2,230,000,000; (1876) $4,530,000,000; and (1889) $6,400,000,000, with heavier interest charges than that of Great Britain. The debt of the kingdom of Italy is very large in proportion to its resources, amounting 1888 to $2,246,903,485. The debt of Austria (growing since the middle of the 18th c.) and Hungary (growing mostly since 1848 and incurred largely for railroads), aggregated (1888) $1,741,035,609, that of Austria proper being about three times larger than that of Hungary. Spain, the most heavily indebted country in Europe, in proportion to its resources, had a debt 1888 of $1,200,000,000. The national external debt of Turkey 1874 was $1,115,000,000. Bulgaria, Montenegro, Servia, and Greece were forced by the Treaty of Berlin to assume a portion, and by arrangement the external debt was reduced 1881, Dec., to $530,000,000. Besides this there was 1888, an internal debt of $100,000,000, and an indemnity of $160,000,000 due Russia. The debt of Egypt was estimated 1889 at $520,000,000. The finance minister of the new republic of Brazil reported 1890, Jan., foreign funded debt $146,013,600, domestic funded $292,535,962, domestic floating $139,380,093, total $578,929,655. Germany had a debt (1887) $1,827,977,750; Argentine Republic (1888) $134.672,500; Belgium (1888) $422,464,275; Canada (1889) $233,542,575; Chili (1888) $80,568,887; Denmark (1888) $53,616,015; Greece (1888) $91,618,340; Japan (1888) $249,108,517; Russia (1887) $3,669,944.394, Mexico (1889) foreign $75,000,000. domestic, $16,000,000, total $91,000,000; Netherlands (1889) $449,251,425; Portugal (1888) $490,493,599; Servia (1888) $62,550,000; China (1886) $38,500,000; British India (1889) $911,150,000; Roumania (1889) $170,282,510; Norway (1888) $27,373,658; Sweden (1888) $68,872,267; Switzerland (1889) $8,098,573; United States (1889, July 31) $1,640,673,340.

DEBT, UNITED STATES NATIONAL: the following is a condensed statement of the public debt of the United States from official sources, 1889, Dec 1:

276,794,386.00

U. S. notes held for certificates of deposits actually outstanding.

Cash held for matured debt and interest unpaid.

Fractional currency.

10,140,000.00 10,624,061.38 661.01

Legal tender, gold and silver certificates held as cash,

33,697,264.00

Net cash balance on hand..

40,249.187.24

Interest repaid by transportation

22,419,263.00

Interest repaid in cash, 5 per cent of net earnings.
Amount paid into sinking fund by companies..
Balance due the U. S. on interest account..

1,103,619.00

1,137,000.00

60,381,305.00

DIVORCE: in the U. S. the only state which has no D. laws is S. C., and the only ground for D. common to all other states and territories is adultery. In all other respects there is no uniformity in D. laws, nor in the status of divorced persons desirous of remarrying, The diversity of D. laws has led to so much legal complication and human misery, that the pulpit, bar, and press have been pleading for many years for the enactment by congress of a general code of laws that would be operative in every state alike. The statistics of D., compiled by Carroll D. Wright, U. S. labor commissioner, 1889, covering the period 1867-87, show a total of 328,716 divorces granted. The largest number was in Ill., 36,072; the smallest in S. C., 163. The states having cases of 5,000 and upward each were: O., 26,367; Ind., 35,193; Mich., 18.433; Io., 16,564; Penn., 16,020; N. Y., 15,355; Mo., 15,278; Cal., 12,118; Tex., 11,472; Ky.; 10,248; Wis., 9,988; Mass., 9,853; Tenn., 9,265; Conn., 8,542; Me., 8.412; Kan., 7,191; Ark., 6,041; Ala., 5,204; and Miss., 5 040. Of the total couples concerned 129,383 had children, and 57,524 were without children. As classified by causes, the smallest number was for neglect to provide for wives, 7,955; and the largest for desertion, 126,676, of which 51,485 were granted to husbands and 75,197 to wives. For drunkenness, 1,434 were granted to husbands and 12,432 to wives; cruelty, 6,122 to husbands and 45,473 to wives; and adultery, 38,184 to husbands and 29,502 to wives. Of the total divorces 216,077 were granted to wives and 112,639 to husbands. Divorced persons have no restrictions on remarrying in Ariz., Conn., Ky., Ill., and Minn.; but no person divorced for violation of the marriage vow can marry the particeps criminis during the life of the former husband or wife in Del., Penn., and Tenn., nor at any time in La. In Mass., either party may remarry, but the defendant in the D. suit must wait two years, and then only on obtaining permission from the court; and in Me. either party may remarry on obtaining similar permission. N. Y., which grants D. only for adultery, allows the plaintiff to remarry, but prohibts the defendant from doing so during the plaintiff's lifetime, excepting under conditions satisfactory to the court. The duration of local residence which entitles a person to institute suit for D. ranges from 90 days in Dak. to six months in Ariz., Cal., Ind., Ida, Neb., Nev., N. M., Tex., and Wyo.; 1 year in Ala., Ark., Colo., Ill., Io., Kan., Ky., Me., Miss., Minn., Mo., M nt., N. H., O., Or., Penn., R. I., Utah, Vt. (applies to both parties), W. Va., Wash., and Wis.; 2 years in Fla., Md., Mich., N. C., and Tenn., and 3 years in Conn. and Mass., if both parties were residents when married, otherwise 5 years. Among the causes for which D. is granted are wilful desertion, which must be 6 months in duration in Ariz.; 1 year in Ark., Cal., Colo., Dak., Fla., Ida, Kan., Ky., Mo., Mont., Nev., Or., Utah, Wis., Wash., and Wyo.; 2 years in Ala., D. C., Ill., Ind., Io., Mich., Miss., Neb., Penn., and Tenn.; 3 years in Conn., Del., Ga., Me., Md., Mass., Minn., N. H., N. J., O., Tex., Vt., and W. Va.;