varies according to the dose in which it is administered. In small doses, it is absorbed, and acts as a temperant; and, in this quality, it is employed in jaundice, foulness of the stomach and intestines, &c. In larger doses, it principally spends its action on the mucous intestinal membrane, and induces alvine evacuations, especially when given in powder. Its taste being rather less unpleasant than that of some other neutral salts used in medicine, and its operation being of a very gentle nature, it is very frequently administered. In France, the soluble cream of tartar is generally preferred.

CRÉBILLON, Prosper Jolyot de, the elder, a writer of tragedy, who is compared, by his countrymen, even to Eschylus, born at Dijon, Feb. 15, 1674, early manifested talent at the school of the Jesuits in his native town, but, at the same time, a boisterous and heedless temper. Being designed for the profession of law, he was placed with an attorney named Prieur at Paris; but they were both lovers of the theatre, so that the youth made little progress in his studies. The attorney perceived, too, that his pupil was disqualified for the profession by his passionate temperament, but showed penetration and judgment in his criticisms on dramatic performances: he therefore advised him, though he had, as yet, written nothing but some trifling songs and scraps of verse, to apply himself to dramatic composition. Crébillon did so; but his first piece, La Mort des Enfans de Brutus, was rejected by the players. He burnt the manuscript, and resolved to have no more to do with the drama; but, subsequently, at the persuasion of Prieur, he wrote Idoménée, which, in 1705, was brought upon the stage. The faults of the play were overlooked in consideration of the youth of the author, and the promising talent which it displayed; and the promptness with which the author in five days wrote anew the last act, which had displeased at the first representation, drew the attention of the public to the young poet, whose talents, after the appearance of his Atrée, in 1707, were loudly applauded. Prieur, though sick, requested to be carried to the theatre, and said to the young tragedian, "I die content; I have made you a poet, and leave in you a man who belongs to the nation." A strange taste for unnatural declamation had been excited by the Rhodogune, and this manner was carried to excess by Crébillon, in the Atrée. In 1709 appeared his Electre, which is as declamatory and as intricate as his carlier plays;

yet it suited the taste of the age. His chef d'œuvre, at least according to_La Harpe, is his Rhadamiste (1711). But Boileau, on his death-bed, hearing the first scenes of this tragedy read to him by Leverrier, could not help exclaiming to his friends, "Heavens! do you wish to hasten my death? Why, the Boyers and Pradons were suns to this author! I shall be more willing to leave the world, since our age is becoming inundated with silly trash." Most persons of the present day would probably agree with Boileau. În eight days, the Rhadamiste passed through two editions, and Paris and Versailles vied with each other in admiring it. Crébillon had been told that his talent lay in the terrible, and thought, therefore, that he could not exert himself too much in scenes of horror, and hence was called the terrible. Xerxes (1714) exceeded, in this respect, all that he had before written, but soon disappeared from the stage. Semiramis (1717), the mother enamoured of her son, and not cured of her passion by the discovery of his relationship, was severely censured. It was not till nine years after this that his Pyrrhus appeared (1726), and met with a good reception, contrary to the expectation of the author, who, in this work, had abstained from the frightful and shocking. Domestic distress and poverty seem, from this time, to have crippled the powers of his genius. His small patrimony was absorbed by debts and law expenses. A father and a beloved wife were taken from him within a short time. Amidst the embarrassments in which he was involved, he refused, with characteristic inflexibility, all the offers of assistance which were made him. When madame de Pompadour wished to humble Voltaire, Crébillon was thought of as a fit instrument for her purpose. The king gave him the office of censor of the police, a yearly pension of 1000 francs, and an appointment in the library. Thus freed from anxiety, he finished his Catiline, which was represented, at the king's expense, in 1749, with all the pomp that the court theatre could display. This piece, overrated by the party opposed to Voltaire, is undervalued by La Harpe. To make some atonement to the character of Cicero, which was thought to have been wronged in his Catiline, he wrote, at 76, the Triumvirate, or the Death of Cicero, which was brought upon the stage in his 81st year. The defects of the piece were overlooked, from respect to the age of the author. Thus much for his dramatic compositions. In general, Crébillon shows

none of the true elevation of the tragic art, but only an imitation, sometimes a happy one, of the manner struck out by Corneille. He was a man of a proud and independent character, disdained to flatter the great, and passed much of his life in a condition bordering on poverty. More fortunate circumstances might have given more amenity to his spirit; but, neglected, as he imagined, by mankind, he sought consolation in the company of dogs and cats, which he picked up in the streets (the poorest and most sickly were those which he preferred), and found a species of enjoyment in an irregular manner of living. In 1731, he became a member of the academy. Crébillon died June 17, 1762, at the age of 88. Louis XV erected a magnificent monument to him in the church of St. Gervais, which, however, was never entirely completed till it was removed to the museum of French monuments (aux petits Augustins). Besides the splendid edition of Crébillon's works published by the order of Louis XV, for the benefit of the author, after the successful performance of Catiline (Œuvres de Crébillon, imprimerie R. du Louvre, 1750, 2 vols. 4to.), there is another published by Didot the elder, 1812, 3 vols., in both of which, however, six verses are omitted in Catiline, which had been left out in the representation, as applicable to madame de Pompadour.

CRÉBILLON, Claude Prosper Jolyot de, the younger, son of the preceding, born at Paris in 1707, succeeded as an author in an age of licentiousness. By the exhibition of gross ideas, covered only with a thin veil, and by the subtleties with which he excuses licentious principles, Crébillon contributed to diffuse a general corruption of manners, before confined to the higher circles of Parisian society. In later times, the French taste has been so much changed, especially by the revolution, that such indelicacies as are found in his works would not be tolerated at the present day. His own morals, however, appear to have been the opposite of those which he portrayed. We are told of his cheerfulness, bis rectitude of principle, and his blameless life. In the circle of the Dominicaux (a Sunday society), he was a favorite, and the caveau where Piron, Gallet, Collé, wrote their songs and uttered their jests, was made respectable by his company. Of his works, the best are-Lettres de la Marquise *** au Comte de *** (1732, 2 vols., 12mo.); Tanzai et Néadarné (less licentious, but full of now unintelligible allusions); Les Égaremens du Cœur et de

l'Esprit (Hague, 1736, 3 vols.), perhaps the most successful, but unfinished. One of his most voluptuous pieces is Le Sopha (1745, 2 vols.). In the same licentious strain are most of his other writings composed. It is still a disputed point whether he was the author of the Lettres de la Marquise de Pompadour. They are not included in the edition of 1779, 7 vols., 12mo. Crébillon held a small office in the censorship of the press. He died at Paris, April 12, 1777.

CRECY OF CRESSY EN PONTHIEU; a town in France, in Somme; 10 miles N. of Abbeville, and 100 N. of Paris; population, 1650. It is celebrated on account of a battle fought here Aug. 26, 1346, between the English and French. Edward III and his son, the Black Prince, were both engaged, and the French were defeated with great slaughter, 30,000 foot and 1200 horse being left dead in the field; among whom were the king of Bohemia, the count of Alençon, Louis count of Flanders, with many others of the French nobility.

CREDIT, in economy, is the postponement agreed on by the parties of the payment of a debt to a future day. It implies confidence of the creditor in the debtor; and a "credit system" is one of general confidence of people in cach other's honesty, solvency and resources. Credit is not confined to civilized countries; Mr. Park mentions instances of it among the Africans; but it will not prevail extensively where the laws do not protect property, and enforce the fulfilment of promises. Public credit is founded upon a confidence in the resources, good faith and stability of the government; and it does not always flourish or decline at the same time and rate as private credit; for the people may have either greater or less confidence in the government than in each other: still there is some sympathy and correspondence between the two; for a general individual confidence can rarely, if ever, take place in the midst of distrust of the government; and, vice versa, a firm reliance upon the government promotes a corresponding individual confidence among the citizens. The history of every industrious and commercial community, under a stable government, will present successive alternate periods of credit and distrust, following each other with a good deal of regularity. A general feeling of prosperity produces extension and facilities of credit. The mere opinion or imagination of a prevailing success has, of its own force, a most powerful influence

in exciting the enterprise, and quickening the industry, of a community. The first requisite to industry is a stock of instruments, and of materials on which to employ them: a very busy and productive community requires a great stock of both. Now if this stock, being ever so great, were hoarded up; if the possessors would neither use, let, nor sell it, as long as it should be so withdrawn from circulation, it would have no effect upon the general activity and productiveness. This is partially the case when a general distrust and impression of decay and decline cause the possessors of the stock and materials to be scrupulous about putting them out of their hands, by sale or otherwise, to be used by others; and others, again, having no confidence in the markets, and seeing no prospect of profits, hesitate to purchase materials, or to buy or hire the implements, mills, ships, &c., of others, or to use their own in the processes of production and transportation. This state of surplusage and distrust is sure to be followed by a reduction of money prices; and every one who has a stock on hand, and whose possessions are estimated in money, is considered to be growing poorer and poorer every day. But when prices have reached their lowest point, and begin regularly to rise, every body begins to esteem himself and others as being prosperous, and the opinion contributes powerfully to verify itself. Credit begins to expand; all the stores of the community are unlocked, and the whole of its resources is thrown open to enterprise. Every one is able readily to command a sufficiency of means for the employment of his industry; capital is easily procured, and services are readily rendered, each one relying upon the success of the others, and their readiness to meet their engagements; and the acceleration of industry, and the extension of credit, go on until a surplus and stagnation are again produced. The affairs of every industrious and active community are always revolving in this circle, in traversing which, general credit passes through its periodical ebbs and flows. This facility and extension of credit constitutes what is commonly called fictitious capital. The fiction consists in many individuals being supposed to be possessed of a greater amount of clear capital than they are actually worth. The most striking instance of this fictitiousness of capital, or, in other words, excess of credit, appears in the immense amounts of negotiable paper, that some individuals and companies spread in the community,

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or of paper currency, where the issuing of notes for supplying currency by companies or individuals is permitted. Individuals or companies thus draw into their hands an immense capital, and it is by no means a fictitious capital when it comes into their possession, but actual money, goods, lands, &c.; but, if they are in a bad, losing business, the capital, as soon as they are intrusted with it, becomes fictitious in respect to those who trusted them with it, since they will not again realize it. Extensive credits, both in sales and the issuing of paper, in new and growing communities, which have a small stock and great industry, grow out of their necessities, and thus become habitual and customary, of which the U. States hitherto have given a striking example.

CREECH, Thomas, a scholar of some eminence for his classical translations, was born in 1659. He took the degree of M. A. at Oxford in 1683, having the preceding year established his reputation as a scholar, by printing his translation of Lucretius. He also translated several other of the ancient poets, wholly or in part, comprising selections from Homer and Virgil, nearly the whole of Horace, the thirteenth Satire of Juvenal, the Ídyls of Theocritus, and several of Plutarch's Lives. He likewise published an edition of Lucretius in the original, with interpretations and annotations. He put an end to his life at Oxford, in 1700. Various causes are assigned for this rash act, but they are purely conjectural. He owes his fame almost exclusively to his translation of Lucretius, the poetical merit of which is very small, although, in the versification of the argumentative and mechanical parts, some skill is exhibited. As an editor of Lucretius, he is chiefly valuable for his explanation of the Epicurean philosophy, for which, however, he was largely indebted to Gassendi.

CREED; a summary of belief; from the Latin credo (I believe), with which the Apostles' Creed begins. In the Eastern church, a summary of this sort was called pána (the lesson), because it was learned by the catechumens; yoáon (the writing), or xávwv (the rule). But the most common name in the Greek church was olußodov (the symbol, q. v.), which has also passed into the Western church. Numerous ancient formularies of faith are preserved in the writings of the early fathers, Irenæus, Origen, Tertullian, &c., which agree in substance, though with some diversity of expression. The history of creeds would be the history of the church,

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and of its melancholy aberrations from the simple doctrines of Jesus. Into this interesting, but humiliating history we cannot now enter, but must confine ourselves to a rapid view of a few of its most prominent features. Of the earlier creeds, there are three which require particular attention. I. The Apostles' Creed is so called from its having been formerly considered as the work of the apostles themselves. This notion is now acknowledged to be without foundation. When and by whom it was drawn up, is not known. It can only be traced to the 4th century. It contains a profession of belief in the Holy Ghost, in the divinity of Jesus, his descent into hell, and his ascension into heaven, in the resurrection of the body, in life everlasting, &c. II. The Nicene Creed, so called because it was adopted at the council of Nice, A. D. 325, held to oppose the Arian heresy. It therefore contains an explanation of the article of the Apostles' Creed-"I believe in Jesus Christ, the only Son," &c., which is as follows: "The only Son of God, begotten by the Father, that is to say, of the substance of the Father, God of God, light of light, very God of very God, begotten and not made, consubstantial with the Father, through whom every thing has been made in heaven and on earth." Macedonius, bishop of Constantinople, having denied the divinity of the Holy Ghost, it became necessary to settle this point, which was done by the council of Constantinople, A. D. 381, who added the words which follow "I believe in the Holy Ghost;" viz. "the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father (and the Son' was afterward inserted by the Spanish bishops), who, with the Father and the Son together, is worshipped and glorified, who spake by the prophets." The insertion of the words "and the Son" was finally sanctioned by the Roman church in 883, but has never been received by the Greek church. III. The Athanasian Creed is now acknowledged not to have been the work of Athanasius (q. v.), whose name it bears. It was probably written in Latin, in the sixth century. In the 10th century, it was generally received in the Western church, and, at the reformation, was adopted by the Protestants. It consists of an introduction and two positions, with their proofs, deductions and conclusions. The introduction declares, that "whosoever will be saved must hold the Catholic faith." The first position then states, "The Catholic faith is this-that we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in

Unity, neither confounding the persons, nor dividing the substance." For (to give briefly the remainder of this position) there are three persons, but one Godhead. The Father, Son and Holy Ghost are uncreate, incomprehensible, eternal, almighty, God, Lord; yet there are not three Lords, Gods, almighty, eternal, incomprehensible, uncreated, but one. The Father is neither made, created nor begotten: the Son is of the Father alone, not made, nor created, but begotten. The Holy Ghost is of the Father and the Son, neither made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding; and in this Trinity none is afore or after another; none is greater or less than another. He, therefore, that will be saved must thus think of the Trinity. The second position establishes the doctrine of Christ's incarnation. It is necessary to everlasting salvation, that we believe rightly in the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ. The right faith is, that he is the Son of God, God and man; perfect God and perfect man; yet not two, but one Christ; one, not by conversion of the Godhead into flesh, but by taking of the manhood into God; one altogether, not by confusion of substance, but by unity of person. This is the Catholic faith, which except a man believe faithfully, he cannot be saved.

Besides these creeds, there are numerous Confessions of Faith, which have been adopted by different churches, as standards to which the ministers in the respective communions are required to conform. I. The Greek church (q. v.) presented the Confession of the true and sincere Faith to Mohammed II, in 1453; but in 1643, the Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Greek Church, composed by Mogila, metropolitan of Kiow, was approved with great solemnity by the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, and for a long time was the standard of the principles of the Russian Greek church: it has been superseded by the Summary of Christian Divinity, composed in 1765, by the metropolitan of Moscow (translated into English, Edinburgh, 1814). II. The church of Rome has always received the Apostles', the Nicene and the Athanasian Creeds; but a public authoritative symbol was first fixed by the council of Trent. A summary of the doctrines contained in the canons of that council is given in the creed published by Pius IV (1564), in the form of a bull. It is introduced by the Nicene Creed, to which it adds twelve articles, containing those doctrines which