asylum, and a seminary for school-masters. (See Schools.) It was formerly a thriving town, having many manufactories of broadcloth, large quantities of which were sent into Poland, Russia, and even China; but, since Russia has protected the Polish manufactures, Züllichau has much declined. The manufacture of silk, however, has in some measure supplied the place of that of cloth. On the banks of the Oder, much wine is made; but its quality is less to be commended than the industry of the cultivators. The town belongs, with the circle of the same name (300 square miles, with 30,000 inhabitants), to the duchy of Crossen, which, in 1538, fell to Brandenburg.

ZUMBO. (See Wax Figures.)

ZUMSTEEG, John Rodolphus, a German composer, the son of a servant, was born in 1760, in Sachsenflur, in Würtemberg, and educated in the ducal school near Stuttgart, enjoyed the instruction of the members of the ducal chapel, and, when yet a pupil, composed several operettas, cantatas and songs for the Robbers of Schiller, whose friend he was. He was then appointed violoncellist in the chapel of the duke, and, in 1792, concert-master and director of the opera. He died in 1802, 1 of apoplexy. His songs and glees are some of the best which the Germans possess. He also composed operas and a mass, &c.

ZÜRICH; a canton of Switzerland, bounded north by Schaffhausen, northeast and east by Thurgau, south-east by St. Gall, south by Schweitz and Zug, west by Aargau, and north-west by Baden (see Switzerland); square miles, 953; population, 224,150. The general aspect is pleasant, abounding in hills and valleys, but destitute of the magnificent scenery that marks the interior and south of Switzerland. The climate is mild, and the soil is tolerably fertile, and well cultivated. Rich pastures and extensive orchards abound, and, in some parts, there are fine tracts of wooded country. Corn, wine, cattle, butter and cheese are some of the principal products. The manufactures are considerable, of cotton, silk stuffs, linen, woollen and leather. The inhabitants are of German origin, and, with the exception of two societies, are Calvinists. The government, which was aristocratico-democratic in its administration, was new-modelled in 1831. The legislative power was vested in a great council of 212 members, 25 of whom formed an executive council, and court of final appeal.

ZÜRICH; a city of Switzerland, capital of the above canton, on the Limmat, at the north extremity of the lake of Zürich, in a narrow valley, between hills, 36 miles south-west of Constance, 55 northeast of Berne; lon. 8° 32′ E.; lat. 47° 22′ N. It is pleasantly situated, fortified with a wall and ditch, tolerably neat and clean, though most of the houses are old-fashioned. It has four Reformed churches. Its public buildings are not remarkable, but the scenery around is striking, and there are beautiful promenades. There are numerous private gardens; and in no` place in Europe, except Haarlem, is more attention paid to fine flowers. Having the advantage of water communication by means of its lake and river, it has long been a place of manufacture and trade. Woollens, linens, cottons, leather and silk are its chief manufactures. Few places of the size of Zürich have surpassed it in the cultivation of literature. For five centuries it has been a town of literary distinction. It has a public library of 40,000 volumes, collegium humanitatis, gymnasium Carolinum, a school for the deaf and dumb, and one for the blind, a society of physics, economics, and natural history, a military school, a medical seminary, and various other institutions. Natives, Conrad Gesner, Solomon Gesner, John James Gesner, J. C. Lavater, Hirzel, and Pestalozzi. Population, 14,000. Zúrich has, in recent times, been the theatre of some interesting political events. In the war carried on by the second coalition against the French republic (1799), Zürich became an important point in the military operation. On the fourth and fifth of June, the archduke Charles gained some advantages over the French forces here, and, on the seventh, occupied Zürich. In August, it became the theatre of new conflicts; and, on the twenty-fourth of September, Masséna defeated here the allied forces of Russia and Austria, and compelled them to evacuate Switzerland.

ZÜRICH; a lake of Switzerland, extending, in the form of a crescent, chiefly through the canton of Zürich, but partly also between those of Schweitz and St. Gall. It is divided into two parts by the strait of Rapperswyl, a quarter of a mile over, crossed by a bridge. In other places, the breadth varies to nearly five miles. The length is thirty miles. This lake, without rivalling that of Geneva in its sublime scenery, is one of the finest in Europe, being surrounded by a populous and well cultivated country, and the

prospects on its banks being richly varied. Behind and above the vine-covered hills which enclose it, loftier summits rise gradually higher and higher, till the eye finally rests on the glaciers of Glarus, Schweitz and the Grisons. The prospect is finest from the lake itself, where, as you sail along, the scene is ever shifting and changing. Upon the little island of Ufnan, was formerly seen the tomb of Von Hutten, who died here in 1523.

ZURLA, Placidus, cardinal and vicargeneral of pope Leo XII, born in the Venetian territory, at Legnago, in 1759, and appointed cardinal May 16, 1823, is known by his scientific labors. He spent several years in investigating the accounts of the discoveries of the Venetian travelters in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, who opened the way for Columbus and Vasco da Gama. He published the result of his inquiries in his treatises respecting Marco Polo (who penetrated as far as China, and first brought to Europe information of Japan), and a few other Venetian travellers (2 vols., 4to., with notes on subjects of natural history, by Rossi, 1823). He maintains, in these works, that the brothers Zeno (q. v.) discovered, in the northern parts of the Atlantic, the coasts of Newfoundland, and other parts of America, a hundred years before Columbus, and that the Scandinavian nations maintained an intercourse with the new world as late as 1380, which they had been acquainted with as early as 980 or 1000. The brothers Zeno collected their information on the island of Friseland, which Columbus also is said, by his son, to have visited for the same purpose. Zurla also gives the earliest Venetian chart, which confirms many statements of the Icelandic saga. The cardinal has also written treatises on the travels of Cadamosto and Rionciniotti in Eastern Africa. Zurla has had, for several years, the chief direction of the propaganda. From materials contained in the archives of this society, he prepared a discourse on the advantages which the sciences, particularly geography, owe to the Christian religion (1823).

ZURLITE; an imperfectly-described mineral, found in mount Vesuvius, with calcareous spar. It occurs in rectangular prisms, or in botryoidal masses, of an asparagus-green color. It yields to the knife, but emits sparkles with steel. Specific gravity, 3.274; melts with borax into a black glass.

ZURLO, Giuseppe, count de; an Italian politician, born, in 1759, at Naples. In

1783, when an earthquake had devastated many parts of the kingdom, and men of merit were wanted to heal the wounds of the provinces, Zurlo was sent into Caisbria. He was afterwards made judge, and, in 1798, was invited to become minister of finance; but he declined the offer. The king, however, when he fled to Sic ly, left him in the administration of the finances. The people, entertaining unfounded suspicions against him, seized ha person, and destroyed his house. After a few months, when the royal governmer: was reestablished, he was made minister of finance. The country was inundated with paper money, the credit of the government destroyed, and large suits wanted to meet the public exigencies Zurlo reestablished the finances, and refused the rewards offered him for his services, saying that he had always found himself honored by his poverty. In 1883, his ministry came to an end. He refused every offer of the new government, until, in 1809, Joseph made him minister of justice. He did much within the few months that he remained in this office; but the government, wishing to give him a more extended sphere of action, made him minister of the interior. This department required an entire reorganization. Zurlo took the best measures for the promotion of agriculture, manufactures, public instruction, the fine arts, finances, &c. He also put the hospital for the insane, at Aversa, on an excellent footing. On the restoration of the old government, he arcompanied the queen (madame Murat] to Trieste, where he separated from her; fed sick in Venice, and, during his recovery, made a translation of Anacreon, which appeared there anonymously. He then lived for three years in Rome, and, in 1818, received permission to return to Naples, where he was made minister of the interior in 1820, but, in consequence of the attacks of fanatics, lost the office within a few months. After that time, he lived as a private man, in Naples, where he died in 1828.

ZURZACH; a small town in the canton of Aargau, in Switzerland, with 800 inhabitants; 33 miles east of Basle. Here s a church dedicated to St. Veronica, who is said to have wrought many miracles in Zurzach, and to have been buried there; whence it became a place of pilgrimage much resorted to by devout Catholics (See Veronica.) It still has two fairs, which originated from the former pilgrimages, and are much frequented by German, Italian and French traders.

ZUYDERSEE. (See Zuidersee.) ZWEIBRÜCKEN. (See Deux-Ponts.) ZWINGLI, or (as it is often Latinized) ZUINGLIUS, Ulrich, the Swiss reformer, was a contemporary of Luther, and was born at Wildenhausen, in the Swiss county of Toggenburg, Jan. 1, 1484. Ulrich was the third of eight sons of the bailiff of that place. He studied at an early age in Basle and Berne, and continued his studies in Vienna, where he occupied himself with philosophy, and again in Basle, where he devoted his attention to theology, under the direction of Wyttenbach. In 1506, Zwingli became parish priest at Glarus, and here employed his time, as Luther had done in the Augustine monastery at Erfurt, in the diligent reading of the Holy Scriptures. He copied the letters of Paul in the original Greek, and even learned them by heartan acquisition which afterwards proved of great service to him in his public discussions. He accompanied the forces of Glarus during the campaigns of 1512, 1513 and 1515, in Lombardy, in the cause of the pope against the French, in the capacity of chaplain, and was rewarded for this service by the grant of a pension from the pope. In 1516, he became preacher in the convent of Einsiedeln, then a celebrated place of pilgrimage. Here he showed a spirit far in advance of the age, raising his voice not only against the corruptions and abuses that had crept into the church, and infected the public morals, but even against the pilgrimages in honor of Our Lady of Einsiedeln, and calling upon the bishops of Sion and Constance to promote a reformation of religious doctrines, in conformity with the dictates of the divine word. At this time, however, his conduct was so far from exciting suspicion, that, in 1518, the papal legate, Pulci, gave him the diploma of acolyte chaplain to the holy see. He was, not long after, invited to Zürich, and entered on his office of preacher in the cathedral, Jan. 1, 1519, with a discourse in which he declared himself for the use of the Scriptures in their genuine form, without regard to the prescribed texts and lessons. At Zürich, Zwingli delivered a series of sermons on the Holy Scriptures; and these discourses, with those against error, superstition and vice, laid the foundation for his future work of reformation. The occasion which called him forth was similar to that which had aroused Luther. In 1518, Bernardin Samson, a Franciscan monk of Milan, appeared in Switzerland, with the inten30

VOL. XIII.

tion of raising money by the sale of indulgences._Zwingli, who was then preaching at Einsiedeln, opposed him there, and afterwards in Zürich, with all the power of his eloquence, and brought the indulgences into so much odium that Samson was not even permitted to enter Zürich; and the bishop of Constance, to whom the vile arts of the monk were offensive, supported Zwingli in this measure. From this time, Zwingli gradually went further in his plans, with the approbation not only of the Zurichers, but of the great body of the Swiss in general. In Zürich, his reforms were so far promoted by the government, that, in 1520, a decree was issued, ordering that the Holy Scriptures should be taught without human additions. In 1522, the reformation was extended to external ceremonies. In that year, Zwingli wrote his first work against the fasts of the church, and began the study of Hebrew. The offers of promotion which he received from pope Adrian VI had not power to make him waver. In 1523, the government of Zü rich invited all theologians to a public conference in Zürich, to convict, if possible, Zwingli of an error in doctrine. About six hundred persons, clergy and laymen, were present at this disputation. Zwingli exhibited his opinions in the form of sixty-seven propositions, which were to form the subject of discussion; but the objections of the celebrated John Faber, afterwards bishop of Vienna, appeared so unsatisfactory to the magistracy of Zürich, that they adhered still more zealously to the preachings of Zwingli. The second dispute, in which Zwingli urged his objections to images and the mass with such force that the former were soon after removed from the churches, and the latter abolished, was held, in the same year, in the presence of nine hundred persons. In 1524, Zwingli married Anna Reinhard, a widow, and, the next year, published his Commentary on true and false Religion. The reformation in his native land was now fixed upon a firm base; and he continued the work with undiminished zeal, warmly supported by the public authority, which suppressed the mendicant orders, required all questions of marriage to be settled by the civil tribunals, and established a better administration of the church revenues. In general, Zwingli agreed in his opinions with the German reformers: like them he assumed the Bible as the only rule of faith, rejected all human additions, attacked the ambition and rapacity of the clergy, as well as the

superstitions they had countenanced, and aimed to restore the church to the simplicity of primitive times. His views were on some points peculiar, particularly in regard to the real presence, and on some less important matters relative to the liturgy. In order to remove this wall of partition from between the two parties which adopted the new doctrines, a meeting between the Saxon and Swiss reformers was held at Marburg (Oct. 1-3, 1529), at the suggestion of Philip the Magnanimous, landgrave of Hesse. The former were represented by Luther and Melanchthon, the latter by Zwingli and Ecolampadius. The conference was conducted with moderation, and the otherwise violent Luther treated Zwingli with a brotherly kindness. Although a complete union was not effected, yet a convention was agreed upon, the thirteen first articles of which, containing the most important matters of religious faith, were recognised by both parties; and the fourteenth declared that, though they could not agree as to the real presence of Christ

in the Eucharist, they would conduct towards each in the spirit of Christian charity. In 1531, an open war broke out between Zürich on the one side, and the Catholic cantons of Lucerne, Schweitz, Uri, Underwalden and Zug on the other: and Zwingli was commanded to take the field, bearing the banner of the canton, which it had been usual for an ecclesiastic to support. A battle ensued on the 5th of October, and Zwingli called upon his countrymen "to trust in God." But the enemy were more than twice as strong as the Zurichers, and under better officers: the latter were therefore defeated, and Zwingli was among the slain. The Reformed church (q. v.) afterwards received from the hands of Calvin (q. v.) its present organization. See Hess, Vie de Zwingli (Paris, 1810), and Rotermund, Life of Zwingli (in German, Bremen, 1818).-An edition of his works appeared at Zürich in 1819 seq., 4 vols.; and a more complete one has been published at the same place more recently (1828 seq.)

ABERNETHY, John, an eminent English surgeon, was born about 1765; but whether in Ireland or in Scotland he was himself ignorant. It appears, however, that he received his elementary education in England, and commenced his professional studies (1780) at St. Bartholomew's hospital, in London, under the direction of sir Charles Blick, one of the surgeons of that institution. Young Abernethy was at this time more remarked for the oddities of his conversation and manners than for any indications of superior genius, and passed, among his fellow students, by the name of the ostler, on account of his attending the lectures in the dress of a groom. Having become the pupil of the celebrated John Hunter (q. v.), Abernethy was appointed, through his influence, assistant-surgeon to Bartholomew's hospital, and, not long after, became lecturer on anatomy and surgery in that establishment. He continued assistant-surgeon of the hospital for nearly forty years, until the death of sir Charles Blick, when he was elected senior surgeon. In 1793, he first appeared as an author, by the publication of his Surgical and Physiological Essays (3d part, 1797), which was followed by Surgical Observations (part 1st, 1804, 2d, 1806). New editions of the latter appeared in 2 vols., 8vo., 1809-11, with additions. These publications, particularly his Observations on Local Diseases and Indigestion, and on Tumors and Lumbar Abscess, established his reputation not only at home but in foreign countries. His account of cases of his

tying the iliac artery for aneurism, containing, as it did, striking examples and lucid descriptions of that bold experiment, attracted especial notice and admiration. As a lecturer on surgery, anatomy and pathology, Abernethy held the first rank in London. In his mode of teaching, he was not very minute on anatomy, which he thought could only be learned in the dissecting room; but the energy of his manner, and the allusions he was accustomed to introduce, gave a great interest to what he delivered, and attracted the attention of his pupils. He was particularly earnest in urging upon them that the education of a surgeon is never complete, and that his whole life should be a course of study. He also opposed the division of surgery into distinct departments, as that of the oculist, of the aurist, &c., considering the whole as essentially connected, and that no man, properly educated, can be ignorant of the diseases which those divisions embrace. His treatment of his patients was marked by many eccentricities, which often took the character of harshness and rudeness, although some anecdotes are related of his benevolence and kindness towards those in destitute circumstances. His death took place in 1830. Besides the works already mentioned, Abernethy published an Inquiry into Hunter's Theory of Life (1814); the Introductory Lecture for 1815, exhibiting some of Mr. Hunter's Opinions respecting Diseases; Physiological Lectures (1817), &c.

ABHORRERS. (See Jeffreys, George.)