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west of Mexico; lon. 101° 35′ W.; lat. 22° 50′ N.; population, 30,000. It is situated in a mountainous country, in the vicinity of some of the richest silver mines in Mexico, which are wrought by great numbers. It is well built, and contains a college, an hospital, a number of churches, and a mint, in which were coined, from 1810 to 1826, 32,108,185 dollars. Several other towns, as Sombrerete, Fresnillo, Jerez, Pinos, and Nochisitlan, have a population varying from 14,000 to 18,000 souls. Maize, wheat, chile, &c., are among the products. ZACH, Francis, baron von, one of the most eminent astronomers and mathematicians of our day, was born at Presburg, in 1754, and died at Paris, of the spasmodic cholera, in 1832. After having entered the Austrian military service, and passed some years in London, he was appointed grand chamberlain to the duchess dowager of Saxe-Gotha, who then resided at Eisenberg, and, in 1804 and 1805, accompanied her on a tour through France. From 1787 to 1806, he had the direction of the observatory at Seeberg. After that time, he resided chiefly abroad, and accompanied the duchess to Paris and Italy. In the latter country, through his influence, an observatory was erected at Naples, and another near Lucca. Baron von Zach also contributed much to extend the field of astronomical science by his writings, in which are united clearness and profoundness. His Geographical Ephemerides, and the continuation of the same work under the titles of Monthly Correspondence for promoting the Knowledge of the Heavens and the Earth, and Correspondance Astronomique, are works of great value. He also published several treatises on particular subjects, and was the author of many papers in different periodical publications. Of his works we will mention his treatise L'Attraction des Montagnes et ses Effets sur les Fils-à-Plomb (Avignon, 1814, 2 vols.); his Tabula Motuum Solis nova et correcta (Gotha, 1792, 4to.); and his Almanacca Genovese, which he edited in Genoa.

ZACHARIE, Just Frederic William, one of the German authors who prepared the way for the advancement of German literature after the time of Gottsched, was born in 1726, and died in 1777, professor of belles-lettres in the Carolinum at Brunswick. His Renomist―the German word for disorderly students (see Russel's Germany)-a comic epos, published in 1742, and some other works, display hu

mor. His works appeared in a second edition, in 2 vols. (Brunswick, 1772). An additional volume was published in 1781. ZACHARIAH. (See Zechariah.) ZACYNTHUS. (See Zante.) ZADOC (Sadoc). (See Sadducees.)

ZAFFRE is the residuum of cobalt, after the sulphur, arsenic, and other volatile matters of arsenical cobalt, have been expelled by calcination. The zaffre that is commonly sold, and which comes from Saxony, is a mixture of oxide of cobalt with some vitrifiable earth. It is of a gray color.

ŽAFTLEEVEN, or SACHTLEEVEN, Hermann, one of the most skilful painters of landscapes, was born at Rotterdam, in 1609. He lived in Utrecht, and died in that city, in 1685. His views exhibit the environs of Utrecht, or Rhenish scenery. D'Argenville says that Zaftleeven visited Italy; but the Dutch writers deny this. He portrays nature under serene and elevated aspects; a smiling heaven overarches his cities and mountains, and a warm air breathes itself over the sunny and retiring distance. His paintings are scattered in different places. Descamps gives a list of his works. Zaftleeven also employed the etching needle.-His brother Cornelius, born at Rotterdam, in 1612, was a successful painter of scenes from common life.

ZAGATAI. (See Tartary.)

ZAHARA, DESERT OF. (See Sahara.) ZÄHRINGEN; a village near Freiburg, in what was formerly the Austrian Brisgau, with the ruins of an ancient castle, from which the ancient dukes of Zahringen, the ancestors of the grand-dukes of Baden, derived their name.

ZAIMS, and TIMARIOTES, are possessors of Turkish fiefs, who, according to a law of the sultan Amurath I, in the fourteenth century, are bound to furnish spahis, or cavalry, as the condition of enjoying their fiefs. The Porte maintains only about ten or twelve thousand spahis (q. v.), who are paid by the government, and called kapikuly. The rest of the spahis are furnished by the possessors of timars. The number of all the zaims (i. e. such vassals as have a revenue of from 20,000 to 100,000 aspers annually from their fiefs) is about 6689. For every 5000 aspers, they must send one horseman into the field in time of war, so that a zaim cannot send less than four nor more than twenty spahis The number of the timariotes, however, or of those vassals who have from 6000 to 19,999 aspers annually, amounts to 52,649. These must furnish one spahi

for every 3000 aspers; therefore each of them from two to six spahis. Thus the minimum of their collective quotas is 134,054 men. In 1792, it was resolved to unite all the timars with the imperial domains, after the death of the possessors; upon which the government was to support the army. The number of troops, therefore, has not changed much. Besides these troops, the Porte maintains another corps of cavalry, consisting of the former rifle makers and amorers. This kind of cavalry, called jebeddshy, is divided into sixty ortas, each of which, according to rule, should contain 500 men; but the number is never complete, and the ortas together never contain more than 18,000 men. Since the introduction of the European military system into Turkey, and the abolition of the janizaries (in 1826), part of the cavalry has also received another organization. Yet in many provinces, the military fiefs still remain, and are held upon the conditions above mentioned.

ZAIRE, OF CONGO; a river of Africa, which is supposed to rise in about lat. 10° S., and which takes a northerly course to lat. 3°, in Congo (q. v.), after which it takes a south-west direction, and runs into the Atlantic at Fathomless point; lon. 12° 20 E.; lat. 6° S. It is less than three miles wide at the mouth, has a very impetuous current, and pours a great mass of water into the ocean. In 1816, an expedition was fitted out from England to explore this river; but the company were unable to navigate the river, either with their sloop or with boats, farther than 120 miles. Leaving their sloop, they proceeded on foot 150 miles farther; but, meeting with insuperable difficulties, they were compelled to return.-See Tuckey's Expedition to explore the Zaire or Congo (4to., 1818).—It has been supposed by some, that the Zaire, or Congo, is the outlet for the waters of the Niger; but the discoveries of Lander have refuted this supposition. (See Niger.)

ZAJONCZEK, Joseph, prince, senator, general of infantry, viceroy of the kingdom of Poland, born, in 1752, at Kaminieck, of a noble but poor family, like other young Polish noblemen, entered the army, became, in 1784, lieutenant-colonel, in 1793 colonel and commander of a regiment. He served in the war of Poland against Russia, and was made major-general. But Poland was overcome, and Zajonczek, with many others, emigrated to France. On his way thither, he was arrested in Gallicia, together with his broth27

VOL. XIII.

er, and both were imprisoned in Joseph stadt. When set at liberty, he went to Paris, and was made general of brigade in the French army in Italy. The Polish legion did great service in that war, and Zajonczek distinguished himself. He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt, and afterwards commanded a division of French troops in Italy. In 1812, he accompanied Napoleon to Russia, where he lost a leg. He then quitted the French army. In 1815, the emperor Alexander appointed him viceroy, or namiestnik, in Poland. In 1818, he was made a prince. Nicholas confirmed him, in 1825, in his dignities and privileges. He died at Warsaw, July 28, 1826.

ZALEUCUS; the lawgiver of the republic of Locris, a Greek cólony in Græcia Magna. (q. v.) He lived, according to some, 500 B. C., and was a disciple of Pythagoras; according to others, he lived as early as the seventh century B. C. Only a few disconnected notices of his life and laws can be gleaned from ancient authors. His laws seem to have been very severe. travagance of dress, he ordained that prostitutes alone should wear jewels and ornaments of gold. Adultery was to be punished by the loss of both eyes. The son of the lawgiver himself was convicted of this crime: the people, actuated by esteem for the father, prayed him to acquit his son; but Zaleucus remained inexorable. In order, however, to satisfy the demands of parental love, as well as the requisitions of the law, he condemned his son to lose one eye, to which he add- ed one of his own. This is said to have had such an effect, that, as long as the lawgiver lived, no adultery was heard of in the republic of Locris. In order to maintain the authority of his laws, he ordained that every man who should propose a new law should appear with a rope round his neck, in order to be immediately strangled if the proposed law was not preferred to the existing one.

In order to suppress ex

ZALUSKI; a Polish family, known in the literary and political history of their country.-Andrew Stanislaus, bishop of Cracow, died in 1758, and left his library of 20,000 volumes to the university of that city. His brother, Joseph Andrew, bishop of Kiow, published the Leges, Statuta, Consuetudines et Privilegia Regni Polonia (Warsaw, 1732, fol.). His Specimen Historicum Polonica Critica is also much valued. He died in 1774.-—A count Joseph Zaluski, aid-de-camp of the emperor Alexander, was made curator of the uni

versity of Cracow, in 1826. (See Cracow.)

ZAMBECCARI, Francesco, count, celebrated as an aeronaut, was born in 1756, at Bologna, and was descended of an ancient family, one of the forty senatorial families of the city. He was carefully educated, and made great proficiency in mathematics. Having entered the Spanish naval service, Zambeccari was captured by the Turks, and carried to Constantinople, where he was put into the bagnio. His liberation was finally effected by the interposition of the Spanish ambassador; and the count made a tour in the Levant and in Africa, and afterwards visited the European capitals. He then returned to his native country, and occupied himself with the study of aeronautics. He had devised an ingenious contrivance for taking advantage of the different currents of air at different elevations, so as to give what direction he should choose to the balloon. His idea was to cause the balloon to rise or sink at pleasure by increasing or diminishing the quantity of gas, and to guide its course by oars. In 1812, he attempted to carry this project into execution, although the weather was highly unfavorable; but the balloon, having become entangled in a tree, took fire, and the unfortunate aeronaut perished, a victim to his zeal for science.

ZAMOISKI. Among several distinguished men of this name are, 1. John Zamoiski (in Latin, Samoscius), born in 1542, the greatest Polish statesman and scholar of his time. He studied at Paris and Padua, became chancellor of the realm and general-in-chief, and died in 1605. It was chiefly through his means that Sigismund III obtained the Polish crown. He raised an army, partly at his own expense, and defended the frontiers of the republic against the Swedes, Russians and Tartars. At the same time, he promoted the sciences by inviting foreign scholars into the country, establishing libraries, and founding learned institutions. He wrote, among other works, De Senatu Romano (in Grævius's Thes. ant. Rom. 1); De perfecto Senatore.-2. Andrzey Zamoiski, high chancellor, the distinguished defender of the independence of his country, was early a military officer of signal courage and talent, subsequently a senator and high chancellor (1764). He strove to suppress the disturbances at the election of king Stanislaus Poniatowski, and afterwards resigned all his offices, because he could no longer serve his country. In 1776, he accepted the invitation of the diet to

prepare a digest of the laws, in which he restored the rights of the third estate (Polish, Warsaw, 1778, 3 vols., fol.; German, by Nikisch, Warsaw, 1780). The king approved of this excellent work, but the diet would not accept it. Soon after the great political change in 1791, the count died, in January, 1792. His name was every where held in reverence. He was a philosopher in the true sense of the word, just, wise and benevolent. He gave the first example of the abolition of bondage on his estates. His wife, Constantia, a princess Czartoryska, was an uncommonly accomplished and noble woman. She died in 1797.

ZAMOLXIS, the Getian; according to some, the slave of Pythagoras and his disciple; but, according to Herodotus, he belongs to an earlier age (Hist. iv, 94 and 96). He was esteemed in antiquity as a wise man, and one who conferred great benefits on his people. He is said to have taught them the immortality of the soul (Herodotus iv, 93), and to have given them wise laws; on which account divine honors were paid him after his death.

ZAMORIN. (See Calicut.)

ZAMOSC; the strongest fortress of the kingdom of Poland, in the woiwodeship of Lublin, between this place and Lemberg, in a south-eastern direction from Warsaw, on the river Wieprz; lon. 23° 15 E.; lat. 50° 42′ N. In 1809, the Poles took it from the Austrians, and, in 1813 the Russians from the French. The place was an entailed estate of the Zamoski family, and was built in the Italian style, by the famous general and chancellor John Zamoiski (q. v.), after he had defeated the archduke Maximilian of Austria. In 1820, the state bought the town, with the environs, from the senator count Stanislaus Kostka de Zamoiski. Zamose was now deprived of its extensive suburòs, and changed into a fortress. The coat of arms of the Zamoiski family is still, or at least was till of late, preserved on the walls. The place contains a large palace, several other large buildings, among which is an arsenal, four churches, of which one is Greek, two convents, a theatre, &e. Population, exclusive of the garrison, 3500. There is here a gymnasium, a library, and a printing-office, all established by John Zamoiski, already mentioned.

ZAMPIERI. (See Dominichino.)

ZANESVILLE, a flourishing town and seat of justice for Muskingum county, Ohio, is situated on the east bank of Muskingum river, immediately adjoining the falls, in lat. 40° N., lon. 82° W., and seventy-four

miles west from Wheeling, in Virginia, sixty north-west of Marietta, seventy northeast of Chilicothe, and fifty-eight east of Columbus. The great Cumberland road passes through this town. It contains the county buildings, and 3056 inhabitants. If the population of West Zanesville and the village of Putnam, on the opposite side of the river, are reckoned a part of it, the town may be said to have contained, in 1830, 4000 inhabitants. On the falls have been erected several mills, among which are flour and saw mills, a rolling mill, a nail factory, a woollen factory, and a steam paper mill. The town has two glass factories. Two excellent bridges cross the river.

ZANETTI, Antonio Maria, count, a distinguished connoisseur, who acquired great reputation for his taste and learning, and for his talent for engraving, was born at Venice, in 1680. At the early age of fourteen, he had already executed several engravings; and, after finishing his education, he visited the different schools of Italy, and, at a later period, went to England for the purpose of examining the collection of the earl of Arundel, the finest specimens of which he copied. He expended his fortune in the collection of a cabinet of antiquities, the value of which may be estimated from the work of Gori upon the gems belonging to it Gemma Antique Zanetti (Venice, 1758, fol., with 80 plates). Zanetti likewise rediscovered the lost art of chiaro-scuro engraving, which had been invented by Carpi. (q. v.) Among the works of Zanetti, the Lettere sulla Pittura, Scultura ed Architettura (Rome, 1754, 7 vols., 4to.) are important, as illustrative of the history of art. He published several collections of engravings:-1. Antiche Statue Greche e Romane che si trovano in Venezia (fol.); 2. Icones ex Musco suo, &c. (fol., with 100 plates, 1743); and, 3. Raccolta di varie Stampe a Chiaro-scuro (with 71 woodcuts and 30 other engravings). Zanetti died at Venice in 1766.-His nephew, Antonio Maria, the younger, librarian of St. Marks, in Venice, died in 1778, was also the author of several works upon art and antiquities.

ZANGUEBAR; the name given to a large territory of Africa, bordering on the Eastern sea, including the countries of Melinda (q. v.), Magadoxo, Mongala, Jubo, Mozambique (q. v.), and some others, extending from lat. 2° N. to 21° S. The name is said to import "the coast of the negroes," all the inhabitants being blacks, with curled woolly hair.

ZANNI, ZANNESCHI. (See Harlequin, and Masks.)

ZANOTTI, Francesco Maria, born in 1692, at Bologna, was the son of a comedian, was educated in the college of the Jesuits, in 1718 was made professor of philosophy, and librarian, in 1723 secretary, and in 1766 president of the university of Bologna. He wrote poetry in Tuscan and Latin verse; also five essays, containing rules for the different kinds of poetry. At the jubilee in Rome, in 1750, he delivered a eulogy on the fine arts, in the capitol. In a second oration, he attacked the first, and in a third refuted the second. These are distinguished for beauty of style, and deep and lofty thoughts, as are all of his philosophical and physical writings, especially his Morals and the dialogues on the pressure of bodies. His principal production is his Commentaries on the Academy, containing a history of this learned society, and an analysis of all the physico-mathematical treatises laid before it. The Memoirs of this society contain several treatises on geometrical, analytical, physical and musical subjects, written by him. In his De Viribus Centralibus, he explains Newton's doctrine of the central forces. A collection of his works appeared at Bologna in 1779. He died in 1777.-Giampietro Cavazzoni Zanotti, born at Paris in 1674, wrote several works relating to the history of the fine arts in Bologna. As secretary to the Clementine academy of painting at Bologna, he wrote Storia dell' Accademia Clementina (2 vols., fol., Bologna, 1739). He died in 1765.— Eustachio Zanotti, of Bologna, born in 1709, professor of astronomy there, died in 1782, is known by his observations on comets and the form of the earth; also by his optical and hydrometrical experiments.

ZANTE (anciently Zacynthus); one of the seven Ionian Islands, in the Mediterranean, situated to the south of Cephalonia, of irregular form, fifteen miles long, and eight broad; square miles, 160; population, 40,000. In its aspect, it is the finest of the Ionian Islands, presenting, when viewed from the fort above the town of Zante, a prospect of vales and eminences richly cultivated, covered with vineyards, olive plantations, orange, and other fruittrees, and containing numerous hamlets or villages. The whole surface of the island presents traces of subterraneous fire, discovered in some parts by warm sulphureous springs, in others, by heat in the soil. It has springs of petroleum and mineral tar, which are productive. The

climate, though very hot in summer, is not unwholesome. The chief products are currants, also olive-oil, and wine; some cotton and silk. The corn raised is hardly equal to four months' consumption. (See Ionian Islands.)-Zante, the capital of the island, has a population of 20,000 souls; lon. 21° 8′ E.; lat. 37° 50′ N. It is the largest town in the republic of the Seven Islands, pleasantly situated at the bottom of a small bay, on a hill of gentle declivity. It resembles in its appearance an Italian town. The principal street, which traverses it in its whole length, is broad and handsome, bordered with well-built houses and churches, and has a foot-pavement. The houses are partly of brick and partly of wood, and, on account of the frequency of earthquakes, seldom exceed one or two stories. The harbor is spacious; the environs extremely pleasant and picturesque. In 1820, several hundred houses were overthrown here by an earthquake. The island was in the possession of the Venetians from the end of the fourteenth to the end of the eighteenth century. In 1797, it was taken by the French, and in 1799, by the Russians. In 1815, it became one of the members of the Ionian republic.

ZANTHOPICRITE; the name given to a crystalline substance, extracted from the bark of the zanthoxilum of the Caribbee islands.

ZAPPI, Giovanni Battista Felice; born at Imola, in 1667, one of the best Italian poets of his age. After having studied law at Bologna, where he made so rapid progress that the degree of doctor was conferred upon him when he was only thirteen years old, he went to Rome, where he soon distinguished himself as a poet. He was one of the founders and chief ornaments of the academy of the Arcadians. His poems are graceful, especially his canzoni and madrigals, but at times artificial. Clement XI gave him the hope of considerable benefices; but he died in 1719, without having obtained them. His wife, Faustina Maratti, daughter of the distinguished Roman painter Carlo Maratti, was equally distinguished for beauty and poetical talent.

ZAR. (See Czar.)

ZARLINO, Giuseppe, born in 1540 (according to Gerber, 1520), at Chioggia, near Venice, on the Adriatic sea, died in Venice in 1599. He is one of the greatest of the theoretical musicians who preceded Rameau and Rousseau. He determined more accurately the relation of the major

and minor third, and, by his Instituzioni armoniche (Venice, 1562, 1573, folio), laid the foundation of a thorough treatment of harmony. As early as his eighteenth year, he appeared as an author, and wrote a number of works, published collectively, under the title of Instituzioni armoniche and Dimostrazioni armoniche (1589, 4 vols, folio). As a composer, he is chiefly known by a piece of music performed under his direction, as chapel-master in the St. Mark's church, Venice, at the celebration of the victory of Lepanto. Much information respecting the music of the sixteenth cen tury is contained in his works; but his style is not attractive.

ZARSKOJE SELÓ (i. e. Sara's Village, so called from a lady who owned it when it was yet a village) is an imperial pleasure castle, twenty-five wersts (about seventeen miles) south of St. Petersburg, from which a highway leads to it through a very monotonous country. Catharine I built a castle here, which Elizabeth enlarged and embellished in 1744, and to which Catharine II, whose favorite residence it was, gave its present splendor. The large palace, three stories high, is magnificently ornamented: even the outer cornices and other ornaments are gilt; yet most of it, with the exception of what Catharine II changed or built herself, is in an old fashioned style. Among the principal objects of attention, are the great staircase; the saloon, lined with mirrors; the chapel; the porcelain room; and the amber room, in which the walls are cov ered from the floor to the ceiling with sculptures of amber. The rooms contain magnificent furniture and beautiful paintings. There is also a gallery of bronze figures, made by artists of the Petersburg academy. In the gardens, which are laid out in the English manner, by a German, are a hermitage, with statues and vases, Roman and Gothic temples, pyramids, several columns and obelisks, monuments, and triumphal arches, which Catharine II caused to be erected to count Romanzoff and the brothers Orloff. (q. v.) The entrance of the garden is now adorned by a colossal triumphal arch of an antique form, consisting of cast iron, with the inscription, "Sacred to my dear companions in arms," erected by the emperor Alexander, after the wars of 1812, 13 and '14. (For some more information, see Loudon's Encyclopædia of Gardening.) Near this palace lies the town of Sofia, with which Zarskoje Selo is at present united, and where, some years ago, a ly ceum, for the education of civil officers,

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