in some cases, from, or of. It is prefixed mountain), which belongs to the Norie to the names of the host of noblemen in Alps, and separates them from the Tyrol. that country; in which case it is equiva- They were annexed to the Tyrol in 17-2, lent to the French de, and the Dutch van, and were ceded with it, by the peace of which latter, however, does by no means Presburg, to Bavaria; but, in 1814, were always indicate nobility. There are a few restored to Austria. The country is mouncases, also, in Germany, in which von tainous, and watered by several small rivprecedes the name of a commoner. The ers, among which, the Lech and the Iller origin of this signification of von was, take their rise here. There is much wood probably, that the early noblemen were and good pasturage, and the raising of called by their Christian name, with the cattle is the chief occupation of the inhabaddition of the castle or village which be- itants. The corn produced is not equal longed to them. Before family names be- to the consumption. There are cotton came settled (see Names), it was very cus- manufactures here, and the making tomary, on the European continent, to call wooden ware, and the building of boats any person, commoner or nobleman, by and houses (the latter exported to Switzerhis Christian name, with the addition of land), employ a great number of the inthe place in which he resided, either habitants. The chief town (Bregenz) has changed into an adjective, or with the 2500 inhabitants. preposition of, de, von. By degrees, this Vorstius, Conrad, an eminent divine, became a distinction of the nobility in born at Cologne, in 1569, was the son of Germany, but not in Holland.

a dyer, who secretly seceded to the ProtVONDEL, Joost van der, one of the most estant communion. Conrad was sent to celebrated poets of Holland, of which, Haerlem and Heidelberg, at which unihowever, he was not a native, was born versity he was created a doctor of diviniat Cologne, in 1587. His parents, who ty. After giving lectures on theology, at were Anabaptists, removed to Holland Geneva, in 1596, he accepted a professorwhile he was a child, and the poet him- ship at Steinfurt, until 1610, when he reself afterwards went over to the Arminiansceived a call to succeed Arminius in the (q. v.), and finally died in the bosom of the professorship of theology at Leyden. Roman Catholic church, in 1659. Nature Having accepted this offer, he soon behad endowed him with extraordinary tal- came involved in the controversial war ents, and he derived little aid from edu- which raged in the Netherlands; and the cation. He has been called the Dutch Gomarists, taking advantage of a book Shakspeare. Devoting himself entirely which he had published, entitled Tractato the cultivation of poetry, Vondel first tus Theologicus de Deo, accused him of learned Latin and French in the thirtieth heresy. James I, on receiving the book year of his age, read the Roman and of Vorstius, drew up a catalogue of hereFrench writers, and endeavored to supply sies from it, which he sent to his minister the deficiencies of his early education. at the Hague, with an order to certify to His works display genius and elevated the states how much he detested those alimagination ; but the language is often in- leged errors. He also caused his book to correct. His poems compose nine vols. be burnt in London, and informed the quarto, and include metrical versions of states, who said they would inquire into the Psalms, of Virgil and of Ovid, to- the case, that if they did not dismiss gether with satires and tragedies. Among Vorstius, none of his subjects should visit the latter, Palamedes, an allegorical piece Leyden. The appearance of a work, by relating to the death of Barneveldt, and some of his disciples, entitled De Officio the Conquest of Amsterdam, are consid- Christiani Hominis, which contained some ered the masterpieces of Dutch tragedy. anti-Trinitarian doctrines, although formalCamper has treated of Vondel, in a Latin ly disclaimed by Vorstius, excited against prize essay, published at Leyden, in 1818. bim so much odium, that he was banished,

VORARLBERG ; a mountainous district, by the states of Holland, from their terrinow forming a circle of the Tyrol, sur- tories. (See Arminius, and Arminians.) rounded by the Tyrol, Switzerland, lake He lived for more than two years in seConstance, and Bavaria. It has its own crecy, frequently changing his abode, in separate constitution, and consists of the fear for his life, and died, in 1622, at the lordships of Bregenz, Feldkirch, Pludenz, age of fifiy-three. and Hohenems, with a population of Vortices of DESCARTES. (See Des86,754 souls, on 1578 square miles. The cartes.) Vorarlberg lordships derive their name Vosges; a chain of mountains in the from the Arlberg, or Adlersberg (Eagle east of France, extending from north to

they say a vow is promissio de meliori bono, they are the natural expressions of emoTo promise God to do what he com- tions, either with no assistance, or with mands, or to avoid what he forbids, is not but slight assistance from consonants. a vow, because we are already obliged so From the circumstance that the vowel to act." The Catholics adduce nume- sounds require only breathing and the rous passages in the Old Testament to opening of the mouth, they are by far the prove that vows are agreeable to God; predominating sounds in the cries or muand their idea of vows is intimately con- sic of animals, the pronunciation of the nected with that of good works. To consonants being more difficult, as reProtestants the theory

of vows appears quiring the application of the other oruntenable, because nothing can be agree- gans of speech. In the particular that able to God but what is good in itself; the vowel sounds may be continued as and it is the duty of man, at all times, tolong as the breath lasts, some consonants aim at the performance of all the good in resemble them, and are therefore called bis power. They consider vows as be- semi-vowels, or half vowels ; these are the longing to ages when the ideas entertained liquids l, m, n, r, and the sibilant s. (See of the Deity, and of our obligations to him, S.) The number of vowels in the differwere very crude ; and he was looked ent languages is not uniform ; thus there upon much in the light of a human being. are in Greek seven, in Latin but five, They consider those vows as nothing less and in German, if we consider ä, ő, ü, than impious, which assume that the Deity simple vowels, as they really are, eight. can be made to deviate from the path pre- (For further observations upon this point, scribed by infinite wisdom for the con- and upon others touched on in this article, sideration of a promise which can have no see Voice.) This difference in number, meaning except between finite beings. however, is sometimes founded more on The pope has the power, not to absolve the scarcity or abundance of characters, from vows, but to substitute some equiva- ihan on a difference of sounds, since, in lent for the specific performance of them. some languages, there are many more vowCatholic writers have therefore main- el sounds than signs. In some languages, tained that liberty, which is given up in the sounds of the vowels are uniform, as the monastic vows, being the highest in Italian and Spanish. Thus a, e, i, good of man, no equivalent can be found o, u, never change their sound excepi in for it, and therefore the pope cannot dis- as far as they are pronounced long or pense from or commute these vows. short. The same is the case in the Ger(For the monastic vows, see Monastic man language, with the single exception Vous, Monasteries, and Religious Orders.) of e, which, in many cases, is mute, as in

Vowel (from the French voyelle ; Latin, haben. In French, e is pronounced in three rocalis); a simple articulated sound, which ways—the è ouvert, é fermé, and e muet. is produced merely by breathing and a (See E.) But in no language are the peculiar opening of the mouth, or, at least, same vowel-characters used to designate with very little assistance from any other so great a variety of sounds, and in no organ of speech. We say very little, be- European language are there so many cause the difference of the sounds e sounds falling

between the fundamental and i (pronounced as in Jtalian or Ger- sounds, as in English: such are u in but ; man) seems to us to depend, in some i in sir; u in spur; ough in through ; sligbt measure, on a curvature of the ea in heard, &c. These intermediate tougue. Tubes, with various openings, sounds are by far the most difficult for have been invented, which produce the foreigners to acquire, and are very rarely sounds of the five vowels a, e, i, o, u, as learned so perfectly that the foreign acpronounced in most languages on the cent is not perceptible. Vowels, as has European continent. The circumstance been remarked in the article Consonant, that all vowels, mainly, and most of them very frequently alternate with each other entirely, depend upon the form given to in the fluctuations of language, and are, the opening of the mouth, is the reason therefore, of less importance to the etyalso, 1. that they can be pronounced with- mologist than consonants. In the Gerout the assistance of another sound; hence man language, the change of vowels has they are called, in German, Selbstlauter become a grammatical form, to indicate, (i. e. self-sounds), whilst consonants are generally speaking, the relation of derivacalled Hülfslauter (sounds which need tion. The harmoniousness of a language the assistance of another); 2. that the depends much npon the proportion of the sound of the vowels can be continued as vowels to the consonants. (See the artilong as the breath lasts: for this reason, cle Consonant.)

Vossius, or Vos, Gerard John, a cele- that country, where he died in 1688. brated writer on criticism and philology, Besides editing the works of Scylax, Jusborn near Heidelberg, in 1577, studied at tin the historian, Catullus, Pomponius Dordrecht and Leyden. At the age of Mela, St. Barnabas, and St. Ignatius, he twenty, he commenced his literary career published Dissertatio de vera Ætate Munby the publication of a Latin panegyric di ; De Septuaginta Interpretibus eorumque on prince Maurice of Nassau, and, two Translatione et Chronologia Dissertationes, years after, became director of the college in which he defended the chronology of of Dordrecht. In 1614, the chair of phi- the Septuagint version against the Helosophy was offered him at Steinfurt; brew text of the Old Testament; De Pobut he preferred the direction of the ematum Cantu et Viribus Rhythmi, &c. theological college established at Leyden; Isaae Vossius was, while in England, and, after having occupied that post four intimate with St. Evremond and the years, amidst the storms of religious con- duchess of Mazarin ; but though he lived troversy, he procured the more peaceable much in the society of the great, his appointment of professor of rhetoric and behavior was sometimes rude, and his chronology. Having declared himself in language by no means decent. In his favor of the Remonstrants, he became writings, he maintained extravagant paraobnoxious to the prevailing party in the doxes, while he was generally considchurch; and, at the synod of Tergou, or ered as an infidel in religion. Hence Gouda, in 1620, he was deprived of his Charles II said he was a strange divine, office. Through the influence of arch- for he believed every thing but the Bible. bishop Laud, the patron of Arminianism Votiacks. (See Finns.) in England, Vossius was indemnitied for Votive Tables are those tablets which his loss by a prebendal stall at Canterbury, give information of the circumstances with permission to continue his residence connected with offerings deposited in a in the Netherlands. In 1633, he was temple in consequence of vows. invited to Amsterdam, to occupy the VOUET, Simon, an eminent French chair of history, at the schola illustris, and painter, was born at Paris, in 1582, and continued there till his death, in 1649. was bred up under his father, who was Among his numerous works may be also an artist. He accompanied the specified the treatises De Origine Ido- French embassy at Constantinople, and lolatriæ; De Historicis Græcis, et de drew the grand seignior, from memory, Historicis Latinis ; De Poetis Græcis et alter an audience in the train of the amLatinis ; De Scientiis Mathematicis ; De bassador. He then visited Venice and Quatuor Artibus popularibus ; Historia Rome, at which latter capital he acquired Pelagiana ; Institutiones Historica, Gram- great distinction. He remained in Italy maticæ, Poetice; Etymologicon Lingue fourteen years, when he was sent for hy Latina ; De Vitiis Sermonis ; De Philo- Louis XIII, to work in his palaces, and sophoruin Sectis. A collective edition of furnished some of the apartments of the his works appeared in 6 vols., folio (Am- Louvre, the palace of Luxembourg, and sterdam, 1695-1701).

the galleries of cardinal Richelieu, and Vossius, Isaac, son of the preceding, other public places, with his works. He was born at Leyden, in 1618, and, pos- was a good colorist, but had little genius sessing great natural talents, acquired for grand composition, although France early reputation among the learned. At was certainly indebted to him for introthe age of twenty-one, he published an ducing a better taste. Most of the suc. edition of the Periplus of Seylax, with a ceeding French painters who gained Latin version, and notes. Christina, distinction, were bred under him, inqueen of Sweden, invited him to Stock- cluding Le Brun, Perrier, Mignard, Le holm, and chose him for her preceptor in Sueur, Dorigny, Du Fresnoy, and others. the Greek language. His quarrels with He died in 1619. Saumaise having rendered ihe court of Voulgarians. (See Bulgaria.) Sweden disagreeable to him, he quitted it Voussoirs; the wedge-shaped stones in 1649, and returned to his native country, which form an arch. where he employed himself in the pro- Vow. “A vow," says the Catholic Dieduction of various learned works. "In tionnaire de Théologie (Toulouse, 1817), 1670, he visited England, and was ad- " is a promise made to God of a thing mitted to the degree of LL. D. at Oxford; which we think to be agreeable to him, and, in 1673, having been presented to and which we are not, on other grounds, a canonry, at Windsor, by Charles II, he obliged to render to him. This is what passed the remaining part of his life in the theologians understand by it when they say a vow is promissio de meliori bono, they are the natural expressions of emoTo promise God to do what he com- tions, either with no assistance, or with mands, or to avoid what he forbids, is not but slight assistance from consonants. a vow, because we are already obliged so From the circumstance that the vowel to act." The Catholics adduce nume- sounds require only breathing and the rous passages in the Old Testament to opening of the mouth, they are by far the prove that vows are agreeable to God; predominating sounds in the cries or muand their idea of vows is intimately con- sic of animals, the pronunciation of the nected with that of good works. To consonants being more difficult, as reProtestants the theory of vows appears quiring the application of the other oruntenable, because nothing can be agree- gans of speech. In the particular that able to God but what is good in itself; the vowel sounds may be continued as and it is the duty of man, at all times, to long as the breath lasts, some consonants aim at the performance of all the good in resemble them, and are therefore called bis power.' They consider vows as be- semi-vowels, or half vowels ; these are the longing to ages when the ideas entertained liquids l, m, n, r, and the sibilant s. (See of the Deity, and of our obligations to him, s.) The number of vowels in the differwere very crude; and he was looked ent languages is not uniform ; thus there upon much in the light of a human being. are in Greek seven, in Latin but five, They consider those vows as nothing less and in German, if we consider ä, ő, ti, than impious, which assume that the Deity simple vowels, as they really are, eight. can be made to deviate from the path pre- (For further observations upon this point, scribed by infinite wisdom for the con- and upon others touched on in this article, sideration of a promise which can have no see Voice.) This difference in number, meaning except between finite beings. however, is sometimes founded more on The pope has the power, not to absolve the scarcity or abundance of characters, from vows, but to substitute some equiva- than on a difference of sounds, since, in lent for the specific performance of them. some languages, there are many more vowCatholic writers have therefore main- el sounds than signs. In some languages, tained that liberty, which is given up in the sounds of the vowels are uniform, as the monastic vows, being the highest in Italian and Spanish. Thus a, e, i, good of man, no equivalent can be found o, u, never change their sound excepi in for it, and therefore the pope cannot dis- as far as they are pronounced long or pense from or commute these vows. short. The same is the case in the Ger(For the monastic vows, see Monastic man language, with the single exception Vows, Monasteries, and Religious Orders.) of e, which, in many cases, is mute, as in

VOWEL (from the French voyelle ; Latin, haben. In French, e is pronounced in three rocalis); a simple articulated sound, which ways—the è ouvert, é fermé, and e muet. is produced merely by breathing and a (See E.) But in no language are the peculiar opening of the mouth, or, at least, same vowel-characters used to designate with very little assistance from any other so great a variety of sounds, and in no organ of speech. We say very little, be- European language are there so many cause the difference of the sounds e sounds falling between the fundamental and i (pronounced as in Italian or Ger- sounds, as in English: such are u in but ; man) seems to us to depend, in some i in sir; u in spur; ough in through ; slight measure, on a curvature of the ea in heard, &c. These intermediate tongue. Tubes, with various openings, sounds are by far the most difficult for bave been invented, which produce the foreigners to acquire, and are very rarely sounds of the five vowels a, e, i, o, u, as learned so perfectly that the foreign acpronounced in most languages on the cent is not perceptible. Vowels, as has European continent. The circumstance been remarked in the article Consonant, that all vowels, mainly, and most of them very frequently alternate with each other entirely, depend upon the form given to in the fluctuations of language, and are, the opening of the mouth, is the reason therefore, of less importance to the etyalso, 1. that they can be pronounced with- mologist than consonants. In the Gerout the assistance of another sound; hence man language, the change of vowels has they are called, in German, Selbstlauter become a grammatical form, to indicate, (i. e. self-sounds), whilst consonants are generally speaking, the relation of derivacalled Hülsslauter (sounds which need tion. The harmoniousness of a language ibe assistance of another); 2. that the depends much upon the proportion of the sound of the vowels can be continued as vowels to the consonants. (See the artilong as the breath lasts : for this reason, cle Consonant.)

OF

Voyages of Discovery. (See Trav- He was son of Juno alone, who, in this, els, and North Polar Erpeditions.) wished to imitate Jupiter, who had proVoyer. (See Argenson.)

duced Minerva from his brains. AccordVries, Hieronymus van, born at Am- ing to Homer, he was son of Jupiter sterdam, in 1776, is one of the most and Juno; and the mother was so diseminent living scholars and authors of gusted with the deformities of her son, Holland. His Life of Anaxagoras, and that she threw him into the sea as soon as his Eulogy of Hieronymus van Decker, born, where he remained for nine years. laid the foundation of his reputation, and According to the more received opinion, procured him admission into the Dutch Vulcan was educated in heaven with the institute. His History of Dutch Poetry rest of the gods, but his father kicked him (1808, 2 vols.) is a classical work, and down from Olympus, when he attempted gained the prize offered by the society to deliver his mother, who had been fisfor the promotion of Dutch literature and tened by a golden chain for her insolence. poetry. Vries has subsequently been He was nine days in passing from heaven one of the most active members of the upon earth, and fell in the island of Lemsecond class of the institute, which is nos. He broke his leg by the fall, and employed on two numismatical works of ever after remained lame of one foot. He the greatest interest for Netherlandish fixed his residence in Lemnos, where he history. One is intended to forin a built himself a palace, and raised forges supplement to the works of Van Loon to work metals. "Bacchus intoxicated him, and Mieris, the other to comprise those and prevailed upon him to come to Olymmedals which were struck subsequently pus, where he was reconciled to his pato 1723, and could not, therefore, be in- rents. Vulcan has been celebrated, by the cluded in the works of Van Loon and ancient poets, for the ingenious works and Mieris.

automatical figures which he made. It Vroon, Henry Cornelius; a Dutch is said, that, at the request of Jupiter, he painter, born at Haerlem, in 1566. Be- made the first woman that ever appeared ing shipwrecked on the coast of Portu- on earth, well known under the name of gal, during a voyage to Spain, he succeed- Pandora. (See Pandora.) The Cyclops of ed so well in painting the storm which Sicily were his ministers and attendants: caused his misfortune, that he dedi- and with him they fabricated, not only cated himself entirely to sea pieces, on the thunderbolts of Jupiter, but also arms his return home. About this time, the for the gods and the most celebrated heearl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of roes. His forges were supposed to be England, being desirous of preserving the under mount Ætna, in the island of Sicidetails of the defeat of the Spanish ar- ly, as well as in every part of the earth mada, in which he bore so conspicuous a where there were volcanoes. Venus was part, bespoke a suit of tapestry descrip- the wife of Vulcan. Her infidelity is well iive of each day's engagement. For this known. Her amours with Mars were tapestry Vroon was employed to furnish discovered by Phæbus, and exposed to designs; and the tapestry has often ex- the gods by her own husband. The worcited great admiration in the house of ship of Vulcan was well established, parlords, where it was placed. The date of ticularly in Egypt, at Athens, and at the death of this artist is not recorded. Rome. He was represented covered with

Vulcanists; those geological theorists sweat, blowing, with his nervous ann, the who maintain that the earth was at first fires of his forges. His breast was hairy, in a state of igneous fusion, and that it and his forehead was blackened with gradually cooled, and became covered smoke. Some represent him lame and only at a subsequent period. According deforined, holding a hammer, raised in the to the Vulcanists, the land was raised up air, ready to strike; while, with the other by an internal force; the irregularities hand, he turns with pincers a thunderwhich diversify its surface are the effects bolt on his anvil. He appears, on some of volcanic eruptions; and the transported monuments, with a long beard, dishersoils have been formed by the disintegra- elled hair, half naked, and a small round tions of the higher grounds. The Nep- cap on his head, while he holds a hamtunists, on the other hand, maintain that mer and pincers in his hand. The Egypthe earth was originally in a state of aque- tians represented him under the figure ous solution. (See Geology.)

of a monkey. Vulcan received many VULCANUS; a god of the ancients, who other names, among which the most compresided over fire, and was the patron of mon is Muleiber. He was father of Cuall artists who worked iron and metals. pid by Venus. Cicero speaks of more