cannot be a better example of geological ignorance or waste of money than that instanced in the late Professor Forbes's last introductory lecture, where the parties sunk in quest of coal into the dip of vertical strata ; so that, however long they continued their fruitless task, they would be constantly working in the same bed in which they commenced.*

The survey of Russia owes its completion to the indefatigable perseverance of our countryman, Sir R. I. Murchison, and his companions. In their work they were abundantly aided by the late emperor, and the various Government establishments throughout the empire. The result of these labours is embodied in "Russia and the Ural Mountains."

Government geological surveys are now in progress in Hindostan, with, we believe, the more immediate object of developing the extent of the Indian coal-fields. They have also been undertaken in Africa, Australia, and Canada. In these countries, the greater portion of which are abandoned to the undisputed sway of nature, where the only inhabitants are wild animals, or almost equally wild aborigines, the geological surveyors are often not only the pioneers of science, but of civilisation. These gentlemen have frequently added much that is interesting and novel to the general store of science; the most remarkable, perhaps, being the discovery by Mr. Logan of foot-tracks in the Potsdam sandstone of Canada, a formation which is equivalent to the oldest fossiliferous strata of this country.†

A survey of Newfoundland has been completed by Mr. Jukes, who was specially invited over for that purpose. An interesting memoir, containing the results of his labours has been published. The majority of the States of of North America have undertaken, and in some instances completed, surveys of a similar character, and their example will, no doubt, be followed by the remaining states.

We proceed to offer a few remarks on the uses of geological maps, more

with reference to their practical bearings than theoretical interest.

The bounding lines of formations of different ages, instead of being at all times cases of super-position, are frequently found to be those of juxta-position. In the latter instance, the phenomenon is generally denominated a fault. It is in fact a vertical displacement of the strata, the result of the action of internal forces in former ages, and indicates that the interior of the earth is not composed of solid or unyielding materials. Faults are much more numerous than is generally supposed. Seldom is a continuous section of the strata a thousand yards in length exposed to view, in which they may not be observed. In mining districts, it is evidently a matter of much importance to have these faults delineated, as they affect the depth of the mineral in proportion to the amount of their "throw."§ To accomplish this, the scale of the topographical map must be large. On the maps of the Government Survey of Great Britain these lines of dislocation have been carefully traced, and when obtainable, the amount of displacement engraved on the proper side.

There is another class of phenomena closely connected with that of faults, and the origin of which is still involved in much uncertainty we refer to lodes, or metalliferous veins. These are fissures in the rock, filled with various foreign substances, amongst which are ores and minerals. On the maps of the Geological Survey, the lodes are marked in gold lines, with signs, denoting the metal, affixed to each.

Students of geology are continually learning to how great an extent the configuration of the surface of our earth is dependent upon its geological structure. The connexion is much the same as that which subsists between the outward form of a vertebrate animal, and its internal skeleton. It is by no means uncommon to find the same geological formation preserve, over large areas, a form of surface pe

culiar to itself. This fact has been long recognised, and artists and painters would do well to study geology, with the object of truly copying natural scenery. Instead of the shapeless masses of light and shade, which are intended for rock, we should find a more careful representation of the bedding, or other structural phenomena of rocks. Geological mapping, executed upon truthfully-shaded charts, such as those of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, exhibit the connexion between the structure of the rocks and form of surface to which we have referred; for by their means we have the cause and effect placed together before our

eyes.

In several districts of Britain, which have hitherto supplied a vast amount of coal, the seams are being rapidly exhausted. Almost every coal-producing district exhibits extensive tracts, over which the coal-beds have been worked out and abandoned. The present consumption of coal is enormous, being more than thirty millions of tons annually; and this substance being incapable of reproduction will, in course of time, become more and more scarce. Nor does there appear to be, in general, forethought in the reservation of districts for future supply. Such is the exception, the reverse is the rule. As the coal-seams are exhausted where they are shallow, they will be penetrated to where they are deep; and the day is not distant when the superincumbent formations, the permian and trias, hitherto but little explored, will be pierced in search of the precious mineral. It is, therefore, a matter of great importance to ascertain, in particular districts, the existence, or the non-existence, of coal-beds below these formations, and, in the former case, their approximate depth; and they are questions which it is the province of a geological survey to determine, as far as the nature of the subject will admit of. From statements made at the late meeting of the British Association in Liverpool,* it would appear, that the Government surveyors have been directing special attention to the subject, and with much promise of

success.

Its importance will be fully estimated, when it is stated as almost certain, that there is as great a quantity of coal-measures buried beneath these two formations-viz., the permian, and new red sandstone of England-as now occupies the surface.†

Geological maps are also useful in affording the landowner a knowledge of the mineral value of his property. They should be consulted in questions as to the best lines for railroads, roads, or canals. In conducting plans having reference to a water supply, a full knowledge of the nature and structure of the rocks of the district is indispensable, inasmuch as springs, and the direction of the percolation of water underground, is more or less affected by these phenomena.

Accompanying the maps of the British Surveys are geological sections, plotted to a scale of six inches to one mile. They present an accurate outline of the country traversed; and as they have been laid out so as to embrace the most prominent features of the surface and of the rocks, they will be interesting to all who would desire to have a correct knowledge of the outline and physical structure of the country, over its most picturesque and mountainous districts. These sec tions have been carried over the summits of all the loftiest mountains of Wales. In order to their completion, numerous difficulties, arising from the nature of the country, had to be overcome. Precipices were to be climbed and descended, rivers, lakes, and marshes measured, and passages cut through woods and thickets. In fact, every engineer who has experienced the difficulties attending the carrying of a lineo! railway-section over a comparatively le vel country, will be able to appreciate the difficulty of levelling in a straight line from the summit of one Welsh moun tain to that of another. The results, however, fully compensate for the la bour expended. Great objects are not to be obtained without great ef fort. By means of the sections which are now before the public, we are made acquainted with the nature and structure of the rocks thousands of feet beneath the ground on which we

tread. We can, with approximate accuracy, indicate the depth at which certain strata, to which we had bid farewell miles behind us, repose; and should they again meet our view, we are enabled to judge of the manner in which they have conducted themselves in the intervening space. In fine, we can draw the lines of bedding, of dis

location, and the bounding lines of eruptive rocks, with an accuracy approaching that with which we could sketch these phenomena along the face of some gigantic railway-cutting which had laid bare the interior of the earth, from the summits of the loftiest mountains of Wales down to a thousand feet below the level of the sea.

A VERY different aspect is presented by Carlow to-day to its appearance in the year of grace 1361, when Lionel Duke of Clarence established the exchequer of the kingdom here, and expended £500 a vast sum in these days - in building town-walls, of which now no trace remains. The frontier town of the Pale has played its part, and vanished from the stage, to make room for performance more suited to the present day. It was then a journey of time and great difficulty to proceed hither from Dublin, for the road was not thoroughly cleared until 1399. Richard II. first visited Ireland in 1394. After receiving a hollow submission from the Irish chieftains, he departed for England, whereupon they asserted their independence. This caused the return of the monarch, and he marched through the territories of the MacMurrogh Kavanaghs, O'Tooles, and O'Byrnes; but it appears his chief exploit was hewing down, not native men, but native trees, and clearing highways through his line of march. Carlow from Dublin, at our present time of writing, is a pleasant trip of about two hours. The citizen, wishing to visit this ancient but renovated town, has only to direct the driver of an" Irish jaunting-car" to the King's Bridge, and he is speedily "rowlin' along towards the terminus of the Great Southern and Western Railway, and if he arrives in time for the early train (seven o'clock), a bustling and entertaining spectacle awaits him. The large and handsome structure looms against the sky, yet obscured by the haze of morning; but round the area cluster a string of cars, show

XIII.

ing the influx of passengers. The active porters seize on your luggage as you draw up, and having paid the jarvey something more than the "little sixpence," enter the ticket-office. Here is a scene of crushing and excitement, and in the struggles the ladies are not much considered. We grieve to say it is a fearfully selfish place, and the gentle sex are sometimes treated less ceremoniously than in the ball-room. Their anxiety respecting bandboxes and trunks, their innumerable questions respecting labels, and whether their luggage has not been put into the wrong van-if there is any fear respecting its not arriving safely, &c.sometimes meet hasty responses; but, in justice to the officers and porters, we must say they bear the trials of such questioning with most exemplary pa

tience.

The tickets provided, the carriages begin to fill; and the stately step with which first-class travellers march to their seats is often amusing. Ladies look at one another with a standoffishness often comical, and are less inclined to be communicative than gentlemen; though among the latter there is often a noli me tangere air, as much as to say, "Don't presume to address yourself to me, sir; I am not acquainted with you." When travelling with such companions, there is no resource but in a book, or a page in the book of Nature, seen from the next window. The second class affords more variety. Respectable men, often more so than those who seek to "come it fine" in taking a first-class ticket, wish to travel economically, and do so. Ladies, too, where growing families, or limited

means, oblige them to dispense with luxuries at home and abroad, are here; and as there is no pretension, and every desire to be agreeable, interchanges of little kindnesses are constantly taking place, always productive of mutual good-feeling, and frequently of enduring friendship. To the third-class carriages the crowd rush, and here, indeed, is confusion. The artisan, who has been toiling during the week; the smith, who has been swinging the sledge; the carpenter, who has been driving the plane; the weaver, who has been working at the loom, is about to take a holiday-and who has a better right? His is the true otium cum dignitate-an otium not owing its privilege to man, but to the beneficent Father in heaven; a dignity not derived by descent, but earned by the strong right hand and sinewy frame. Here they throng, with wives and children, glad to exchange the close, unwholesome air of lane or alley for breezy hill or flower-spangled field. To such influences the lowly-born are as keenly sensible as the great, in the world's eyes; they are an inheritance "free alike to all," and appreciated as much, (if not more) by the mechanic, who pur sues his lot of labour within the city's bound, as the noblest peer who requires his workmanship. It is always a gratification to us to witness the heir of Nature taking possession of his birthright; and the expression of his toil-worn features, as his frame enjoys the light of the sky, the freshness of the fields, the harmony of birds, the perfume of flowers, is pleasant to contemplate.

We have never refrained from entering into conversation with the people in our frequent rambles, either along roads or rivers, as, in our opinion, there are other qualifications required by the writers of this series besides those of the archæologist and historian. Many a local tradition is known only to the wayfarer by the roadside; and, if this class are not treated with sympathy, they are very shy of unfolding their store of knowledge. The great object which we have endeavoured to effect in our communications and we believe it is the chief one which our MAGAZINE has ever sought to advance-is a knowledge of Irish history, rendered interesting, when combined with local or traditional associations.

There is not one of the Irish rivers, the gleaming waters of which sparkle in the dark framework of nountain or moor, more pregnant with important events than the Barrow. In explor ing its course hitherto, we have marked the progress of civilisation as well as of fertilisation; for the march of the former is marked by halts that is to say, the rise and spread of cities and towns. When water combines to present advantages conducive to health, personal comfort, and traffic, the pioneer of civilisation, or the adventurous foot that presses the virgin soil of the unknown region, stays its onward tread, and the sanguine spirit exclaims"Lo! here I build my dwelling!" If the site be well chosen, and the coun try look inviting, others do likewise; the tide of population sets that way, the solitary house has many companions; these increase as the population fulfil the Divine precept, and where the waste appeared the town is built. Then Commerce springs from its busy bed-Demand produces Supply, and Speculation and Thrift profit by Idleness and Prodigality.

Carlow is pleasantly located on the east bank of the Barrow, and connected with the suburb called Graigue, in the Queen's County, by a handsome ballustraded stone bridge of four arches. It is surrounded by a country chiefly agricultural, for, acting on a policy the wisdom of which it is not our province to discuss, England resolved that Ireland, in common with all her other colonies, should form a market for the purchase of her manufac tures. If, then, our readers are induced to visit Carlow, and have a desire to behold fields highly farmed, well-bred and beautiful animals-they are not less so for being also domestic and useful -we can promise them a great treat.

Carlow, an abbreviation of Catherlough, the "city on the lake," was so called from its proximity to a large sheet of water, which, together with the city walls, has disappeared. The town is of considerable size, forming two main streets, one running parallel with the Barrow, and crossing the Burrin, a small river flowing from the barony of Forth, by a neat metal bridge; the other leads to the suburbs of Graigue. Notwithstanding its great antiquity, Carlow has a modern aspect, and is kept clean and neat. The

streets

streets are paved, and the inhabitants receive a good supply of water from public pumps. Coal is brought from the neighbouring coal-fields, and by the Barrow, from Ross and Waterford; but the fuel chiefly used is turf, of which an unlimited supply is procured from the adjoining county of Kildare. There is great traffic in flour and oatmeal, manufactured by the large mills in the neighbourhood. There is also trade in liquors, as a brewery, a distillery, and several malt houses evince. Exportation of butter, also, is very extensively carried on. On entering the halls of commerce, and seeing the busy workmen pursuing their peaceful avocations thronged on market-days with active men and bustling women, intent on buying and selling; while the river is alive with boats and barges, and along the line of rail the steam-engine and carriages whirl, smoking, pulling, and screaming the tourist cannot help growing conscious that a new era has succeeded the supine past, and that Ireland is in the transition state. Among the modern buildings which deserve notice are the Protestant and Roman Catholic Churches-the former a handsome building, with a noble spire; the latter is also a spacious structure, in the later English style, with a lofty tower at the western extremity of the nave, surmounted by a beautifully-designed lantern. At the base of the altar are buried the remains of the Rt. Rev. J. Doyle, D.D. He was one of the most distinguished Roman Catholic prelates; and his letters, under the signature of "J. K. L." (the combination of his own initial with those of the dioceses of Kildare and Leighlin), were indicative of a high order of talent and great reasoning pow

ers.

-

A magnificent statue, by Hogan, of this eminent man, attest the estimation of his flock for his virtue, and regret for his loss.

A Roman Catholic College, for secular and ecclesiastical education, is well situated in a park, comprising an area of thirty-four acres, affording space for recreation and meditation. The courthouse, near the entrance to the town by the Dublin road, is a handsome octangular building, with a Doric portico, after the Acropolis at Athens. This rests on a platform, ascended by broad, stone steps. The gaol, appropriately

enough, is near it, and well adapted as a reformatory institution.

But if Carlow prove interesting from so many modern features, how much is that interest increased, when we recollect its wealth of history. The town and country round are celebrated in the "Annals of Ireland." Carlow occupied an important place in the eyes of the Anglo-Norman invaders; and as we proceed to examine the remains of its once stately castle, we shall endeavour to remind our readers of the most prominent events which took place before its walls.

Carlow Castle was built on a height commanding the Barrow, evidently for the purpose of guarding the pass. The name of its projector has been lost in the gloom of its antiquity. Among those to whom it is attributed, are Eva, daughter of Dermot MacMurrough; Isabel, daughter of Strongbow; King John; Hugh le Bigod, fourth Earl of Norfolk; and Bellingham; but Dr. Ryan, in his "History of Carlow," assigns it to De Lacy. The date of erection is supposed to be 1180, which was soon after the advent of the English. It was certainly considered a very strong protec tion for the English Pale in Leinster, and its history is, in fact, that of the province. Hemmed in and harassed by the neighbouring Irish, it was with the utmost difficulty the settlers could hold their ground. In the reign of Edward III., the prelates and men of most distinguished rank in Ireland were summoned to a great council or parliament in Westminster, and the return of the writ from Carlow set forth, "that they were not able, by reason of poverty, from the frequent robberies and depredations of the Irish enemies, to meet their sovereign lord the King in his Parliament." Subsequently they actually became tributants to the Irish chiefs, and paid them for protection, or cessation of hostilities, a regular black rent; nay, to such a height had the power of MacMurrough Kavanagh and other chieftains risen, that, by a record in Birmingham Tower, of the 37th Edward III., pro Barrio amovendo a Catherlogh usque ad Dublin, we find they contemplated abandoning it. In 1397, the Castle was seized by Kavanagh, chief of the MacMurroughs; and for some time it was in possession of James, brother to the eighth Earl of Kildare. In 1494, Sir Edward