Norway.

and Karl Witte's edition of the Vita Nuova is dedicated to him. He published in 1880 Historical Studies on Church Building in the Middle Ages; and edited the Letters of James Russell Lowell (2 vols. 1893). He was president of the archæological institute of America in 1879-90.

NORTON, JOHN, 1606-63; b. Stortford, Hertfordshire, Eng.; educated at Cambridge, became curate of Stortford. Having embraced Puritanism, he came in 1636 to Plymouth, Mass., where he preached the first winter; was pastor of the church in Ipswich in 1636; was a member of the convention which framed the " Cambridge platform" in 1648; became colleague of the Rev. John Wilson, minister of the first church in Boston in 1652, and in 1652 went with Gov. Bradstreet as agent of the colony to present an address to Charles II. after his restoration. He wrote many works, one of which was a treatise against the Quakers, entitled The Heart of New England rent by the Blasphemies of the Present Generation, by which they were so enraged that after his death they informed the king that "John Norton, chief priest in Boston, was smitten and died by the immediate power of God."

NORTON, SIDNEY AUGUSTUS, American chemist, b. Ohio, 1835; graduated at Union College in 1856, and studied at Bonn, Leipsic, and Heidelberg. In 1873 he became professor of chemistry in Ohio State University. Author of Physics (1875); Organic Chemistry (1884), etc.

NORWALK, a town in Fairfield co., Conn.; on Long Island sound and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad; 60 miles s. w. of Hartford. It was incorporated in 1651, and contains the cities of South Norwalk, chartered in 1870, and Norwalk, chartered in 1893. The site was originally purchased from the Indians, and the town was burned by the Hessians in the Revolutionary war. The town contains the Norwalk and St. Mary's hospitals, the Norwalk and South Norwalk public libraries, Centre and Over River high schools, Roberts military school, Baird institute, Mead school for girls, Norwalk preparatory school (P. E.) and several national and savings banks. There are electric lights, electric street railroads, waterworks in each city, so arranged that either one can supply both cities in case of an emergency, about 15 churches, and several daily and weekly newspapers. The principal industries in the two cities are the manufacture of straw and fur hats, shoes, shirts, corsets, woolen goods, elastic webbing, cigars, locks, air compressors, builders' hardware, machinery, stone and earthenware, stoves, foundry products, paper boxes, etc. Outside of the cities the principal occupation is farming. Pop. '90, town, 17,747; city of Norwalk, 3,079; city of South Norwalk, 4,013.

NORWAY (Norweg. Norge), the western portion of the Scandinavian peninsula, which, though a separate kingdom, is united with Sweden, is situated between 57° 59′ and 71° 11' n. lat., and 5° and 28° e. long. It is bounded on the e. by Sweden and Russia, and on every other side is surrounded by water, having the Skager Rack to the s., the German ocean to the w., and the Arctic sea to the n. Its length is about 1100 m., and its greatest width about 250 m.; but between the lats. of 67° and 68° it measures little more than 25 m. in breadth. The following table shows the areas and populations of the 20 aemter into which Norway is divided, as estimated in 1891.

Of this total only 474,129 (23.7 per cent.) lived in towns. The capital, Christiania, had in 1891 a population of 151,239. Other important towns are Bergen, with a pop '91 of 53,684; Trondhjem with 29,162 inhabitants; Stavanger, with 23,899; Drammen, with 20,687; Christiansand, with 12,813; and Fredrikstad, with 12,451.

The Scandinavian peninsula consists of more or less connected mountain masses, which, in the s. and w. parts of Norway, constitute one continuous tract of rocky highlands, with steep declivities dipping into the sea, and only here and there broken by narrow strips of arable land. South of Trondhjem (63° n. lat.), the ridge expands over nearly the entire breadth of Norway. The n. portions of the range, known as the Kjöllen Fjelle,* occupy a space of about 25 m. in width and form, as far n. as 69°, the boundary-line between Sweden and Norway. South of 63° n. lat. the range of the Scandinavian mountains is known as the Norska, or Dovre Fjelle, although the latter name belongs properly only to the part immediately in contact with the Kjöllen. The general elevation of the Norska Fjelle does not rise above the line of perpetual snow, whose average height in these latitudes is 5,000 ft.; but it ranges above that of the growth of trees, which may be stated to lie 1000 ft. lower. The Justedal glacier, in Bergen amt, is the largest on the continent of Europe, and covers an area of 588 sq. miles. The whole of the w. coast of Norway is densely fringed with islands and insulated rocky masses, which, n. of 68°, in the Lofoden (q. v.) group, assume larger dimensions, and form extensive insular districts. The more important are Hindö (357 sq. m.), on the borders of Nordland and Tromsö; Langö (147 sq. m.); Karmö (21 sq. m.); and Senjen (273 sq. m.). To the s. of the Anden group, near the little islands, Mosken and Værö, occurs that eddying whirl of counter-currents known to us as the Maelstrom; but with this and a few other similar exceptions, no serious obstacles impede navigation along the numerous channels of the coasts. The most important of the rivers are the Glommen (350 m. long, with a basin of 6,657 sq. m.), the Drams-elv, of less than half the length and basin, Tanæ, Pasvikel, Skiens, Laagen, and Vormen. These and numerous other streams are of more importance for floating down timber to the fjords than for navigation. The fjords or inlets form a characteristic feature of Norwegian scenery, and give an extensive coast-line.

The most considerable of the lakes of Norway is the Mjösen, near Christiania; but even this lake, which in some places is more than 1400 ft. deep, is scarcely 60 m. long, and has an area of less than 200 sq. miles. Swamps and morasses, which occupy a large area, have of late years engaged the attention of the government, which is endeavoring to drain and utilize them for agricultural purposes, and with a view of converting them into fields of turf and peat for fuel.

Climate, Soil, etc.-The peculiar physical character of Norway necessarily gives rise to great varieties of climate in different parts of the country. The influence of the sea and of the gulf stream, and the penetration into the interior of deep inlets, greatly modify the severity of the climate, more especially on the w. coast. Thus, while the mean annual temperature is for Christiania, on the e. coast, 41°, it is 46°.8 Fahr. for Bergen on the w. coast, which is only 30' further north. On the coast generally, rain and fogs prevail; while in the regions near the North cape, storms are almost incessant. In the interior, the air is clear and dry, and the winters are cold and the summers hot, while on the coasts the opposite conditions prevail. The longest day, which in the s. is 18 hours, may be said to be nearly three months in the high latitudes of the n. districts, where the longest night lasts almost an equal length of time. The protracted winter of the n. regions follows almost suddenly on the disappearance of the sun, when the absence of solar lights is compensated for by the frequent appearance of the aurora borealis, which shines with sufficient intensity to allow the prosecution of ordinary occupations.

It is estimated that th of the area of Norway lies within the region of perpetual snow, while elevations exceeding 2,000 feet above the level of the sea are unfitted for human habitations, although for a portion of the brief summers, the herdsmen can occupy satre or huts at elevations of 3,000 feet and upwards. A large extent of the mountain districts yields no produce beyond scanty grasses, mosses, lichens, and a few hardy berry-yielding plants. Only birch and juniper grow n. of 67°, which is the boundary of the pine. The Scotch Fir, Pinus sylvestris (Norwegian, Furn), and Spruce, P. abies (Norwegian, Gran), cover extensive tracts, and with birch constitute the principal wealth of Norway. The hardier fruits, as strawberries, gooseberries, cherries, and raspberries, are abundant and excellent of their kind. Hemp, flax, rye, oats, and barley are grown as far north as 66°; but although agriculture has been more systematically pursued of late years, the crops are not always sufficient for home consumption, and hence it is found absolutely necessary annually to import considerable quantities of corn and potatoes. The frugal peasantry do not, however, rely wholly upon importation, but prepare a species of cake or bread from the bark of the pine when corn is scarce, and in plentiful years store away some of the produce of the harvest in the national corn-magazines, which are established in every part of Norway by way of a provision for an unfavorable season. Agriculture is most successfully prosecuted in the amts of Jarlsberg and Laur

* Fjelle is the plural of fjeld, a mountain-side.

vik, and in the south generally; while in the northern parts, in the upper valleys, the rearing of cattle constitutes an important branch of industry. The herds and flocks are driven from the distant farms to the pasture-lands in these high mountain valleys, known as Sæterdale, where they remain till the approach of cold weather obliges the herdsmen to return with their charges to the shelter of the farms. Although the cattle and horses are small, they are generally strong and capable of bearing much hard labor. Products, etc. The fauna of Norway include the bear, wolf, lynx, elk, otter, reindeer, red deer, seal, the eider-duck and many other kinds of sea-fowl, blackcock, capercailzie, and a great variety of small game. Fish are caught in almost every stream and lake of the interior, as well as in the fjords of the coast, and in the bays and channels which encircle the numerous islands skirting the long sea-line of Norway. Herring, mackerel, and cod are of the greatest importance, and in 1894 gave employment to nearly 126,000 men. The salmon and sea trout catch is also very large. The lobster fishery is also important and there are some productive oyster beds. There are important mackerel fisheries in the North sea, and the Norse are successful in the taking of whales, walruses, seals, and sharks. In 1895 the exports of fish and fish products amounted to 46,512,700 kroner, or $12,465,036. Next to the fisheries one of the chief sources of wealth is the produce of its woods. The total area under forests was estimated, in 1895, at 26,320 sq. miles, of which nearly threefourths consisted of pines. There is a staff under the supervision of the Ministry of the Interior which has charge of the extensive state forests. The industries of Norway are not important, but they have shown considerable progress in recent years. The wood-working industry is quite extensive and there are manufactures of matches, paper, textiles, tobacco, glass, beer, and spirits. Shipbuilding is actively followed in some parts of the country, but in many districts the long winter imposes compulsory leisure upon the tenants of the widely separated farms, and industry in many parts has not passed the domestic stage.

The mineral products, which comprise silver, copper, nickel, iron, steel, apatite, etc., do not yield a very considerable annual return. Besides these minerals, cobalt, zinc, chrome, meerschaum, granite and various kinds of stone used in the arts are found. A silver mine at Kongsberg, discovered in 1623, is still productive, but since the fall in the price of silver its output has greatly depreciated in value.

Trade, etc. Among the principal seats of trade are Christiania, Drammen, Bergen, Stavanger and Trondhjem. The exports consist mainly of fish, animal produce, paper, and metals, of which the first three are by far the most important. Both in respect to imports and exports, Great Britain leads all the other countries with which Norway trades, but, in 1895, the imports from Germany did not fall far below those from Great Britain and Ireland. The other leading nations in respect to the foreign trade of Norway in that year were Sweden, Russia, Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, France, Belgium, and America. The value of the imports in 1895 were 222,310,200 kroner, and of the exports 137,280,100 kroner, the value of the kroner, or crown, being, according to the official report of the United States treasury in 1897, 26.8 cents in United States currency. The principal imports into Norway are bread stuffs, groceries, textile manufactures, minerals, ships, carriages, machinery, metal goods, yarn, rope, etc. The country being so backward in manufactures, its imports include not only objects of luxury, but some of the most essential articles of consumption. The shipping of Norway is very important and, in respect to her merchant marine, she stands among the leading nations of the world. The number of Norwegian steamships engaged in the foreign trade in 1896 was 515, and of sailing vessels 3,377. Revenue, etc. - Revenue is derived largely from customs, railways, excise on spirits and malt, income tax, post-offices, telegraphs, and state property, among which the most important source is customs. As to the expenditure, the state railways for 1896-97 constituted the largest item. The estimated revenue for 1897 was 64,700,000 kroner, which was balanced by the estimated expenditure. The debt on June 30, 1895, amounted to 144,313,440 kroner. Gold is the monetary standard, but in 1895 there was a comparatively small amount of it in circulation, the great bulk of the currency consisting of bank notes, which are issued by the bank of Norway for an amount equal to its gold reserve, plus a certain specified sum (about $6,500,000). The per capita circulation at the end of 1895 was about $7.50. Formerly the standard was silver, but the gold standard was adopted by the law of June 4, 1893, on account of the variations between the two metals and the adoption of the gold standard by most of the great countries of Europe. The mint is open to the free coinage of gold, and silver is coined only on account of the state. While nominal wages are low as compared with those prevailing in the United States, this is in part offset by the greater purchasing power of money in Norway. Between 1885 and 1895 statistics would seem to show an increase in wages, although exact figures are lacking for the period from 1890 to 1895. Administration, etc. - Norway is divided into 20 amts, or administrative circles, as given in the table. The circles are subdivided into 39 towns and 56 fogderier (bailiwicks), each presided over by a rural magistrate, and containing in all 514 herreder, or administrative districts, which have similarly their own judicial or official heads. Norway has a representative government, based on the constitution which was established in 1814, and ratified at Eidsvold. The Storthing, or legislative chamber, meets annually, and is composed of representatives who are elected by deputies who have been selected for the

purpose of nominating the members. These deputies are elected by a system of almost unrestricted universal suffrage, the only qualifications necessary being the attainment of the age of 25, residence for one year in the electoral district, and the payment of an income tax on an income of 500 kroner in the rural districts and 800 kroner in the towns, or the possession of landed property, or the tenancy of such property for five years. The election of the deputies takes place every third year, when the electors meet in their respective parish churches, and choose deputies, whose number is in the proportion of 1 to 50 voters for towns, and 1 for 100 in rural districts. These deputies then select from their own body, or from among other eligible persons, the representatives for the Storthing, which is further subdivided into two district chambers, the Lagthing and Odelsthing, with the former of whom rests the framing of legislative and financial measures, and with the latter the power of accepting or rejecting them, and the right of taking cognizance of the conduct of the ministers, judges, and other officers of the state. The members of the Storthing receive an allowance for their time and traveling expenses during the session. The Storthing votes the taxes, which are collected by officers of the king of Sweden and Norway; it proposes laws, which must be ratified by the king; but if they pass the Storthing three times, they acquire validity even without the king's sanction. Although Norway constitutes one joint kingdom with Sweden in regard to succession, external policy and diplomacy, it is in all other respects an independent state, having its own government, legislative machinery, finances, army, and navy. The king is indeed commander-in-chief of all the forces of the country, whether military or naval; but he can neither augment nor decrease their number, nor proclaim peace or war without the assent of the Norwegian Council of State, which must consist of ten members, natives of the country; nor, excepting in time of war, can he bring foreign soldiers within the frontiers, or send native troops out of Norway. In accordance with the constitution, no title can be conferred independently of the tenure of office, and no one can be raised to the rank of a noble; while with the death of the members of the few still surviving noble families who were born before 1821, all personal honors, privileges, and distinctions belonging to the nobility will cease. The constitution may therefore be regarded as purely democratic in its character. The council of state constitutes the highest court of justice, under whose jurisdiction the provincial magistrates or amtmaend administer justice, in conjunction with the bailiffs and sorenskriver or advocates, who preside over petty rural courts. These lower courts are controlled by the Stift or diocesan courts of justice; while the latter are, in their turn, under the high court of appeal, or Höieste Ret, located at Christiania. Between 1880 and 1884 there was a fierce constitutional struggle as to the king's power of veto.

Religion, etc.-The Lutheran is the predominant church, and is endowed by the government, although freedom is allowed to all other Christian denominations and to Jews. The church is under the administration of six bishops, whose sees are Christiania, Christiansand, Trondhjem, Bergen, Hamar, and Tromsö. There are 83 archdeaconries and 474 clerical districts. The whole number of dissenters in 1891 numbered 30,685, including 8187 Methodists, 4228 Baptists and 1004 Roman Catholics. The clergy who are nominated by the king and receive tithes, exercise considerable influence in remote country districts, where they frequently are called upon to settle disputes, and exercise various judicial functions. Much has been done of late years in Norway for the diffusion of knowledge, and provision is now made to extend education to the inhabitants of the most inaccessible districts by means of itinerant teachers, a certain number of whom, corresponding to the number of farms in each parish, are nominated to the office of schoolmaster. These men proceed from house to house, being supplied with a schoolroom, and fed and entertained by each householder in succession for the number of days at which the farm is mulcted; and by the aid of these means, education is so universally diffused that it is rare to meet with Norwegians who cannot read and write. In 1892 there were upward of 300,000 pupils in the elementary schools. Besides these there were 81 secondary schools, and many private schools and institutions for special or technical instruction. The expenses incurred for elementary education were, for the country districts and for the towns, together, 7,522,918 kroner. The university of Christiania (q. v.), which was founded in 1811, was attended in 1895 by 1142 students, amongst whom are the sons of many of the peasant landowners, who receive a university education without intending to follow the learned professions. Education is compulsory for children between the ages of seven (six and a half in the towns) and fourteen years.

Army, etc.-By the terms of the laws of 1866, 1876, and 1885, the army of Norway is composed of troops of the line, the militia or Landvaern, and the final war levy or Landstorm. In 1894 the troops of the line numbered about 30,000 men and 900 officers. All young men above 22 years of age are liable to serve, with the exception of the inhabitants of the three northern amts of the kingdom. The strongest fortress in Norway is Oscarsborg; and other fortresses, though of far less importance, are Fredrikstad, Fredriksten, Carljohansvaern, Akershuus, etc. The fleet numbered, in 1896, 2 ironclads in process of construction; 4 ironclad monitors; 1 corvette, 32 gunboats, and a small torpedo flotilla. The personnel included, in 1896, 92 officers in active service, 53 in reserve, and 400 seamen and petty officers permanently engaged, but the men liable to conscription according to the law of 1892 numbered on the register nearly 25,000.