A railway was constructed in the Great War for military purposes from Aden to Lahej, 26 miles, and has since been extended to Habil, 8 miles beyond Lahej. The gauge is one metre.

The island of Sokotra (Hadibu alias Taharida) off the coast of Africa is under British protection, and the Kuria Muria islands, off the coast of Arabia, are attached to Adeu. Area of former, 1,382 square miles. Population about 12,000, mostly pastoral and migratory inland, fishing on the coast. Religion, at one time Christian, Mohammedan since the end of the 17th century. The island came under British protection in 1876, by treaty with the Sultan. Chief products, dates and various gums; sheep, cattle, and goats are plentiful; butter is exported. The Kuria Muria Islands, five in number, were ceded by the Sultan of Muskat for the purpose of landing the Red Sea cable.

REFERENCES.-Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. London.

Return

India (Aden), Part I., containing Report on Aden Harbour by Aden Commission appointed in 1901, and Figures of recent Trade in Aden (163). London, 1905. Bent (J Th. and Mrs.), Southern Arabia London, 1900. Bury (G. W.), The Land of Uz.-Arabia Infelix.

Forbes (H. O.), The Natural History of Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri. Liverpool, 1903. Jacob (H. F.). Perfumes of Araby. London, 1915.--Kings of Arabia. London, 1923. Kossmut (F.), Geologie der Inseln Sokotra. Semha, &c. Vienna, 1902.

Lucas (C. P.), Historical Geography of the British Colonies. 2nd. ed. Vol. I. London, 1906.

BAHREIN ISLANDS.

Chief of Bahrein.-Shaik Sir Isa bin Ali al Khalifeh, K. C.I.E, C.S.I. He is extremely aged and the active conduct of affairs is in the hands of his eldest son and heir-apparent, Shaik Hamad bin Isa al Khalifeh, C.S.I. The ruler is in Treaty Relations with the Government of India who are represented by a Political Agent.

The islands form a group of five in the Persian Gulf, 20 miles off the coast of El Hasa, in Arabia. Bahrein, the largest, is 27 miles long by 10 wide; Muharrak, to the north-east of Bahrein, 4 miles long, mile wide. Other islands are, to the east, Sitra, 3 miles long and 1 mile broad, half its area being fertile; Nabi Saleh, about 2 miles in circumference, very fertile; Jezeyra, a small islet with a date plantation; to the west are three rocky and uninhabited islets, Um Nahsan, Jidi, and Raka. The regular population of the islands is put at about 120,000. Manama, the capital and commercial centre, extends 3 miles along the shore and has 35,000 inhabitants. It has a Municipal Council. Motor roads suitable for light cars exist bei ween Man-ma and Sukhair (18 miles, and Manama and Budaiya (12 miles). There are about 100 motor-cars on the Islands. Muharrak on the island of that name has about 20.000 inhabitants. Other towns are Budaiya on Bahrein Island and Hadd on Muharrak Island. There are about 100 villages in the islands. There are thousands of tombs in the shape of conical mounds situated in the interior of the islands. They vary considerably in size, some of them being as much as 100 yards in diameter, and 40 feet in height, entailing vast labour of construction Inside are regular masonry burial chambers. No certainty as to their origin yet exists owing to want of inscriptions, but they are undoubtedly extremely ancient.

The ruling family, Al Khalifa, and most of the townsmen are Mohammedans of the Sunni (Maliki) sect. The town population consists of Arabs

who have come from Nejd within the last 200 years, and negroes. The agricultural population and the Bahrein pearl divers are mostly of the Shiah sect. There is a large Persian (mostly Shiah) community, and a number of Indian (mostly Hindu) merchants and tradesmen live in Manama.

The Bahrein Islands are the centre of the important pearl tisheries of the Persian Gulf. There are over 1,000 sailing boats of various sizes engaged in the fisheries, carrying from 8 to 60 men each. The Islands also produce dates, and a remarkably fine breed of white donkeys. Sail cloth is manufactured extensively, and also reed mats. There are 5 per cent. ad valorem import duties. The importation of arms and ammunition is subject to the consent of the British Government.

In 1923-24, the total imports amounted to 1,711,6867.; and exports to 888,5397. The chief imports were: specie, 623,0457.; rice, 292, 5827.; wheat, 24,7657.; coffee, 74,4177.; ghee, 40,2747.; sugar, 118,5537.; tobacco, 19,0777.; and cotton goods, 187,9227. The chief exports were: rice, 166,9377.; wheat, 8,6227.; pearls, 433,5071.; specie, 26,320.; coffee, 28,0531.; sugar, 48,7567.; and cotton goods, 87,1947.

In 1923-24 there entered the port of Bahrein 71 British ships. The greater part of the trade of Najd and Hasa passes through Bahrein, where transhipinent between steamers and dhows takes place. There is a regular weekly mail service from India and bi-weekly service to India.

There is a British Post office which is worked as an Indian Inland office with the exception of insurance. There is a wireless station.

The principal coins in use are Indian rupees, Austrian (Maria Theresa) dollars worth from 41d. to 48d., and Turkish lire worth from 20s. to 20s. 5d. according to the rate of exchange. The rupee is the coin in general use. The Persian double kran, value about 1s. 1d. is also used. The measure employed is the dhirau of 18 inches. The weights are: the miscal shirazi of 72 grains; the miscal bar of 720 grains; the rubaa of 4 114 lbs. avoir. ; the mann of 57.6 lbs. avoir. ; and the rafaa of 576 lbs. avoir.

Political Resident, Persian Gulf.-Lieut.-Col. F. B. Prideaux, C.S.I., C.I.E.

Political Agent at Bahrein.--Major C. K. Daly, I.A.

Assistant Political Agent at Bahrein.-Captain D. R. Smith, I.A.

Foreign Office Reports. Annual series. London.

Bent (J. Th.), The Bahrein Islands in the Persian Gulf. Proc. R. G. Soc. (N.S. xii. 1.) London, 1890.

Zwemer (8. M.), Arabia: The Cradle of Islam. Edinburgh and London, 1900.

BORNEO (BRITISH).

British North Borneo.-Governor. -Major-General Sir W. H. Rycroft, K.C.B., K. C. M.G.

British North Borneo occupies the northern part of the island of Borneo. The interior is mountainous, Mount Kinabalu being 13,455 feet high.

།།

Area, about 31,106 square miles, with a coast-line of over 900 miles. Population (1921 census) 257,804, consisting mainly of Mohamedan settlers on the coast and aboriginal tribes inland. P Europeans numbered 533; Eurasians, 213; Chinese, 37,856: 233. The number of natives was 197,058. The most numer

suns,

112,287; the Muruts, 37,447; and the Bajaus, 33,070. Chief towns, Sandakan (population 11,936), on the east coast, and Jesselton, on the west coast.

The territory is under the jurisdiction of the British North Borneo Company, being held under grants from the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu (Royal Charter in 1881). It is administered by a Governor (appointed with the approval of the Secretary of State) in Borneo, and a Court of Directors in London, appointed under the Charter. On May 12, 1888, the British Government proclaimed a formal protectorate over the State of North Borneo. In 1898 certain border lands were acquired from the Sultan of Brunei, and more recently certain inland territories have been occupied. For administrative purposes the whole country is divided into five Residencies, which are sub-divided into Districts. In December, 1904, an area of about 200 square miles was transferred to Sarawak in exchange for rights over coal mines on Brunei Bay.

There are Protestant and Catholic missions. The laws are based on the Indian Penal, Criminal, and Civil Procedure Codes, and local Ordinances. There is an Imam's Court for Mohamedan law. Native and Indian constabulary, 800 men under European officers.

The revenue includes sums realised by land sales, and the expenditure includes sums spent on capital account.

Sources of revenue: Opium, birds' nests, court fees, stamp duties, licences, import and export duties, royalties, land sales, &c. No public debt.

Most of the trade is carried on through Singapore and Hong Kong with Great Britain and the colonies. The chief products are timber, sago, rice, coconuts, gums, coffee, many fruits, nutmegs, cinnamon, pepper, gambier, gutta-percha, rubber, camphor, rattans, tapioca, sweet potatoes, and tobacco, which is being planted on a large scale. Coal, iron, gold, and mineral oil have been found. The exports comprise the products mentioned, with birds' nests, seed pearls, bêche-de-mer, &c. Exports of leaf tobacco: 1922, 107.5377.; 1923, 133,8857.; of Estate rubber, 1922, 310,3657.; 1923, 560,7027.; of timber, which is the greatest natural resource of the country, 1922, 170,4117.; 1923, 185,6271. Merchant Shipping (Men-of-War and Government vessels excluded): 1921, entered 333,000 tons; 1922, 311,815 tons; 1923, 294,829 tons.

A railway, 127 miles, runs from Jesselton on Gaya Bay to Melalap in the interior. with a branch from Beaufort to Weston on Brunei Bay. There is communication by telegraphy, telephone, and wireless telegraphy.

At Jesselton and Sandakan there are agencies of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, and the Bank of Taiwan. A State Bank has been established with Head Office in Sandakan and a branch at Jesselton.

The Government issues its own copper coinage (cents and half-cents); nickel coinage of 1 and 5 cents; also notes of one, five, ten, and twenty-five dollars, and of 25 and 50 cents. Accounts are kept in dollar currency.

Brunei. In 1888 the neighbouring territories on the north-west coast of Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak, were placed under British protection. On January 2, 1906, by treaty, the Sultan of Brunei handed over the general administration of his State to a British Resident. The Sultan, Sir Mohamed Jemal-ul-alam, K. C. M.G., succeeded in May, 1906. He receives an allowance of 1,4001. a year from State funds, and his two principal ministers 7001. a year each. Area about 4,000 square miles, and population, 1921 Census, 25,444 (Europeans, 35; Malays and Bornean races, 23,938; Chinese, 1,434; Indians, 37). The chief town is Brunei (pop. 10,000). The old town is built over the water on the Brunei river, and a new town has developed on the mainland since 1910. Police force, 1923, 1 Chief Inspector, and 44 non-commissioned officers and men. The climate is hot and moist, and the nights cool. Average annual rainfall is a little over 100 inches. The native industries in Brunei town include boat building, cloth weaving, brass foundries, and manufacture of silver ware. The principal products are cnrch (mangrove extract), coal, rubber, jelutong, and sago. Most of the interior is under jungle, comprising numerous kinds of serviceable timber. There is abundant evidence of oil, but it has not yet been found in payable quantities. There are vernacular schools at Brunei, and in some out-districts.

Revenue 1923, 25,8731. ; (Customs, 10,5007., monopolies, 4,8257., licences, 1,3001.; lands and forests, 3,0757., cession moneys, 2,5201.); expenditure, 22,0741. Public debt, Dec. 31. 1923, 51,3331.

Imports 1923, mainly rice, 18, 425l., tobacco, 8,000l., piece goods, 11,700., sugar, 5, 1507., kerosene oil, 3 4501.; exports, cutch, 2,475 tous, 27,7661., coal, 8,741 tons, 12.000%, rubber, 835,653 lb., 42,375l., jelutong 5,8007., sago, 4,5857., dried prawns, 4,1307., live stock 3,250%., forest produce 4,3501. The post office dealt with 27,000 articles in 1923.

There is a central Wireless Station at Brunei, and a subsidiary station at Labuan, which enable telegraphic communication to be maintained with Labuan and thence by cable with Singapore and Europe. There is another Wireless Station in the Temburong District.

The distance from Labuan is about 43 miles. Communication by steam launches from Brunei is regularly maintained. The passage between Singapore and Labuan takes about 4 days.

Sarawak.-Area about 42,000 square miles, coast line 400 miles, man. rivers navigable. The government of part of the present territory was obtained in 1842 by Sir James Brooke from the Sultan of Brunei. Various accessions were made between 1861 and 1905. Under an agreement of 1888 Sarawak is recognised as an independent State under the protection of Great Britain. The present Rajah, H. H. Charles Vyner Brooke, succeeded May 17, 1917. Population estimated at about 600,000, Malavs, Dyaks, Kayans. Kenyahs, and Muruts, with Chinese and other settlers. The chief towns are the capital, Kuching, about 23 miles inland, on the Sarawak River, Sibu, 60 miles up the Rejang River, which is navigable by large steamers, and Mri, the headquarters of the Sarawak Oilfields, Ltd. At Kuching are Church of England and Catholic missions with schools. The revenue is derived chiefly from Customs, the Govt. opium monopoly, gambling, arrack and pawn farms, royalty on oil land revenue, timber royalty, exemption tax payable by Malays, and from Dvak and Kayan revenue. The revenue in 1923 was 390,1237.; expenditure, 335,2157. Public debt, nil. Col P ists in large quantities. A considerable oil field is being developed d Bakong

in the Baram district. Foreign trade, 1922: imports, 1,546,9407.; exports, 2,554,5467. The chief exports (1922) included sago flour, 248,000l.; pepper, 68,0007.; gold, 4,000.; plantation rubber, 268,0007.; gutta jelutong, 60,000; cutch, 46,000l.; benzine, 1,020,000%.; kerosene, 106,000; liquid oil fuel, 423.0007.; fish, 22,000l.; damar, 19,000l. The trade is mostly with Singapore. Shipping entered and cleared in the foreign trade, 1922, 324,741 tous. There are military and police forces, consisting of about 700 men, principally Dyaks and Malays, under British army officers. Round Kuching are about 45 miles of roads, besides bridle paths. There are 23 post offices. The Government offices have a telephone system extending over Kuching and Upper Sarawak, and there is communication by wireless with Singapore, &c. There are also wireless stations at Sadong, Sibu, Miri, and Goebilt, and wireless sets at Simanggang, Selalang, Mukah and Biutulu. There are stations building at Kapit and Binatong. Distance from London, 8,700 miles; transit, not less than 30 days, generally more. Telegrams are sent by wireless from Singapore.

Sarawak and Straits Settlements currency, 1 dollar = 2s. 4d.

Government Agency and Advisory Council in England.-H.H. The Tuan Muda of Sarawak, C. H. W. Johnson, Dr. Chas. Hose, and A. B. Ward. Millbank House, Westminster, London.

Books of Reference concerning Borneo, &c.

Annual Reports on the State of Brunei.

Baring Gould (S) and Bampfylde (C. A.), History of Sarawak (1839-1908). London, 1909.
Cator (D.) Everyday life among the Head-Hunters. London, 1905.
Colonial Office List. Annual. London.

Cook (O.), Borneo: the Stealer of Hearts. London, 1924.
Guillemard (F. H. H.), and Keane (A H.), Australasia. Vol. II.
Haddon (Alfred C.). Heat-Hunters, Black, White, and Brown.
Hose (C.). In the Heart of Borneo, Geographical Journal,' vol
Tribes of Borneo. London, 1912.

Ireland (A.) The Far-Eastern Fropics. London, 1905.
Lumholtz (C.), Through Central Borneo (1913-7). London, 1921.
Noble (J.), Notes sur Bornéo. Paris, 1921.

London. New ed. 1908.
London. 1901.

xvi., p. 39.-The Pagan

Roth (H. Ling) The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo. 2 vols. London, 1896. Rutter (0.), British North Borneo. London, 1922.

St. John (Sir S.), Life of Sir Charles Brooke, Rajah of Sarawak. London, 1879.Rajah Brooke. London, 1899.

CEYLON.

Constitution and Government, &c.

Ceylon, the ancient Taprobane (Tamraparnu, the island of "dusky leaves"), is an island in the Indian Ocean, by the south of India, lying between 5° 55′ and 9° 50' N. lat., and 79° 42′ and 81° 53′ E. long. Its area is 25,332 square miles.

The climate of Cylon, for a tropical country, is comparatively healthy; the heat in the plains, which is nearly the same throughout the year, is much less oppressive than in Hindustan. Along the coast the annual mean temperature is about 81° Fahr., at Kandy, 1,654 feet above sea level, it is 76.3° Fahr. At Colombo the monthly mean temperatures of the hottest and coldest months only differ by 31° Fahr.

The average annual rainfall varies from less than 40 inches in the dry zone in the North-West and South-East of the island to above 150 inches over considerable areas on the South-West and North-East slopes of the main hill country, and in the case of the former several stations have averages of